An Introduction to 1 Peter

The letter we know as 1 Peter is very different than other letters most of us are familiar with in the New Testament. Peter—as different than Paul—mixes “imperative”[1] verbs with “indicative” verbs. Furthermore, almost every paragraph of 1 Peter opens with a command. (The only paragraphs that do not open with a command are 1 Peter 1:3–9 and 2:4–10.) Even though 1 Peter was written to people outside of Palestine, he relies heavily on the Old Testament, quoting from it eight times.[2] Peter writes to people that question their faith and are unsure of their faith because of the suffering that they are enduring. If I was to summarize this book in one word it would be “suffering.”

BIG IDEA: Christians everywhere are going to experience the grace of God, the peace of God, the suffering of God, and growth in God.

KEY VERSE: “In this you greatly rejoice, even though now for a little while, if necessary, you have been distressed by various trials, so that the proof of your faith, being more precious than gold which is perishable, even though tested by fire, may be found to result in praise and glory and honor at the revelation of Jesus Christ” (1 Peter 1:6–7, NASB).[3] Some people believe 1 Peter 5:12 serves as a good purpose statement of the letter, and I would agree that could be as well.

PURPOSE. It appears to me that Peter writes this letter to educate his audience about their suffering, to encourage them as they endure that suffering, and to equip them as they endure suffering.

I agree with Donald Guthrie when he writes, “The keynote of the letter is hope and Peter wishes to exhort these Christians to live in accordance with the hope they have received through Christ. He gives practical guidance to assist in their human relationships and particularly exhorts them to endure suffering in a joyful manner for Christ’s sake. His main purpose is, therefore, hortatory, but not infrequently he introduces theological considerations which press home the ethical injunctions. In particular he presents the work of Christ as a stimulus for the Christian endurance of suffering, while at the same time drawing out more fundamental aspects of its meaning. In this way he shows the indissoluble link between doctrine and practice.”[4]

Often 1 Peter 5:12 is seen as the purpose of the letter, “Through Silvanus, our faithful brother (for so I regard him), I have written to you briefly, exhorting and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand firm in it!”

In their fantastic work, The New Testament in Its World, N. T. Wright and Michael Bird write, “1 Peter is much like James: it is a Diaspora letter with a mixture of exhortation and consolation. It was written to exhort Christians in Asia Minor to maintain their faith in the midst of social scorn, shaming, slander, and stigma.”[5]

The Bible Knowledge Commentary tells us, “This epistle could be understood as a handbook written for ambassadors to a hostile foreign land. The author, knowing persecution would arise, carefully prescribed conduct designed to bring honor to the One they represented. The purpose then of 1 Peter was to encourage Christians to face persecution so that the true grace of Jesus Christ would be evidenced in them (5:12).”[6]

AUTHOR: First Peter 1:1 tells us the author is “Peter,” who is “an apostle of Jesus Christ.”[7] This man was a witness of Christ’s sufferings (1 Pet 5:1). This is the only man in the New Testament called Peter.

The Man Peter. Peter was a member of a family of fishermen. They lived in Bethsaida and later in Capernaum. It appears Jesus Christ singled out Peter many times for specific teaching and lessons (Matt 10; 16:13–31; 17:1–9; 24:1–7; 26:31–33; John 6:6; 21:3–7, 15–17).

Names for Peter in Scripture. Peter’s original name was “Simon” (his Greek name) or “Simeon” (his Hebrew name) according to Mark 1:16 and John 1:40, 41. Jesus Christ later renamed (John 1:42) him as “Peter” (his Greek name) or “Cephas” (his Aramaic name). Both words mean “stone” or “rock” (see John 1:42).

The Apostle Peter. It appears, at least from what we read in the gospels and Acts, that Peter was the leader among Christ’s apostles. Matthew, Mark, and Luke, all put Peter at the head of each list of the apostles (see Matt 10; Mark 3; Luke 6; Acts 1).

Peter’s Travels and Death. Peter, as described in the early chapters of Acts, was a key leader in the early church in Judea and Samaria. Tradition tells us that Peter eventually travelled to Rome. It was in Rome that Peter was martyred among Emperor Nero’s famous persecution of Christians (see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 2.25.5; 3.1.2; 3.30.2).[8]

As we determine the authorship of New Testament letters, it’s helpful to categorize the evidence about authorship into both internal and external evidence. Let’s take a look at both of those separately.

Internal Evidence. When you read 1 Peter it’s clear this author was familiar with Jesus’s teachings because thirty-two passages of 1 Peter directly parallel Jesus’s teachings in the gospels.[9]

The author of 1 Peter appears deeply and personally impacted by Jesus’s death on the cross (1:8–20; 3:18; 4:1). The author of 1 Peter refers to himself as an eyewitness of Christ’s earthly ministry (1 Pet 1:8; 2:23; 5:1). Jesus’s commission to Peter in John 21:15–19 matches the commitment of 1 Peter 5:1–4.

Many of the of ideas and terms used by the author of 1 Peter match ideas and terms used by Peter in the book of Acts. For example, the Greek word for wood, xulon, is used in 1 Peter 2:24 as well as Peter in Acts 5:30; 10:39. Another example is the use of “stone” by the author of 1 Peter in 1 Peter 2:7–8 (adapted from Pss 118:22) is also used by Peter in Acts 4:10–11.[10] This is an interesting connection because Peter was present with Jesus Christ when Jesus used Psalm 118:22 to refer to the Jewish leaders’ rejection of Jesus (Matt 21:42). There are also other parallels between this letter and Peter’s sermons that Luke records in Acts (see 1 Pet 1:20 compared to Acts 2:23; 1 Peter 4:5 compared to Acts 10:42).

The comparison between 1 Peter and Peter’s sermons recorded in the book of Acts cannot be ignored.

Acts 2:16–21 is similar to 1 Peter 1:10 regarding the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy.
Acts 2:17 is similar to 1 Peter 1:20 regarding Christ’s fulfillment in the last days.
Acts 2:27 is similar to 1 Peter 1:20 regarding God knowing Christ before the world was created and how God plans to send the Son to die for our sins.
Acts 2:24–32 is similar to 1 Peter 3:19 regarding Christ’s triumph over hades.
Acts 2:31–32 is similar to 1 Peter 1:21[11] regarding the connection to the resurrection and exaltation of Christ.

These comparisons lead Donald Guthrie to conclude, “Although these similarities may not be considered conclusive, yet they could be regarded as confirmatory if at least the substance of the Acts speeches is traced to a Petrine source, and there seems no strong reason for denying this. These similarities are what we should expect in common material attributed to the apostle Peter. In the epistle there is a development of the ideas in the Acts speeches, but this development is of such a character that it is explicable as a maturing of thought in one mind.”[12]

One last bit of evidence that this letter is written by Peter the disciple is that the cryptic description of Rome as Babylon in 1 Peter 5:13 matches what we know about Peter’s later life in that city.

External Evidence. According to John MacArthur, “It is noteworthy that the early Christians universally recognized this letter as the work of Peter.”[13] Donald Guthrie writes, “So strong is the evidence for the use of this epistle in the early church that some scholars have regarded it as proved and maintained that it was considered to be canonical as early as this word had a meaning.”[14]

Early Church Uses of 1 Peter. Irenaeus (AD 140—203) is likely the first person to mention Peter as the author of 1 Peter. In the latter part of the second century, 1 Peter was used by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian. Most scholars believe that Polycarp was familiar with the epistle in the second century.

Polycarp (AD 69—155), cites 1 Peter several times but does not name Peter as the author. While this might be surprising to us and a cause for concern,[15] it was a common practice of Polycarp to cite works without naming the author or source. Polycarp probably was citing 1 Peter from memory. Polycarp used 1 Peter in his Letter to the Philippians, which was likely dated around AD 120—140.[16]

By the time of Irenaeus (AD 140—203), 1 Peter was quoted as a letter of Peter. Irenaeus explicitly cites 1 Peter in the AD 180s.[17] Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria both pick up that same tradition. Theophilus of Antioch also attributes 1 Peter to the apostle Peter.

Papias discusses 1 Peter in a work likely dated to AD 110. This is recorded by Eusebius in his work, Ecclesiastical History 3.29.16. According to Eusebius, 1 Peter was among the “undisputed” New Testament books (see Ecclesiastical History 3.3.1; 3.4.2). Eusebius called these homologoumena (books universally accepted by the church).

With that said, the Muratorian Fragment does not reference 1 Peter or 2 Peter. This is surprising, but possible because parts of the Muratorian Fragment are corrupted.

When we read 2 Peter 3:1 it says that it was Peter’s second letter sent to that audience, so it makes sense the 1 Peter would be Peter’s first letter sent to them as well.

Peter’s Coworkers. First Peter 5:13 reveals Peter’s coworker, “my son, Mark.” Tradition tells us that Mark’s gospel is based on the eye-witness testimonies of Peter. This was the same Mark that failed Paul (Acts 13:13; 15:38-29; Col 4:10), but later became useful for ministry (2 Tim 4:11). Mark being in Rome with Peter makes sense because Colossians 4:10-11 references how Paul left Mark in Rome on an earlier occasion.

Objections to Peter’s Authorship. I agree with Guthrie who comments, “The very great weight of patristic evidence in favour of Petrine authorship and the absence of any dissentient voice raises so strong a presupposition in favour of the correctness of the claims of the epistle to be Peter’s own work that it is surprising that this has been questioned.”[18] Yet, some scholars still reject Peter as the author of this letter for the following reasons.[19]

The Greek used in 1 Peter appears too complex to be written by a fisherman. The writer of 1 Peter has an extended vocabulary of the Greek language. He also shows a strong command of Greek syntax. As a Galilean fisherman who spoke Aramaic, we would not expect to read a letter that has the polished Greek of 1 Peter. However, 1 Peter was written about thirty years after Peter accepted Jesus’s commission to be an apostle and abandon fishing. Thirty years is plenty of time to learn and master a language. Additionally, while Aramaic was likely Peter’s native tongue, he lived in a bilingual area and probably used Greek on occasion. It should also be noted that Peter had Silvanus as his amanuensis (also known as a “scribe” or “secretary”) and perhaps Silvanus was responsible for some of the fancy vocabulary and polished syntax.[20]

The historical situation of suffering and persecution (as revealed in 1 Pet 1:6; 2:12, 15; 4:12–16; 5:8–9) does not match when Peter would have written. If this letter was written in the mid AD 60s of the first century, as conservative scholars believe, liberal scholars say the historical background of suffering and persecution of Christians does not match what we know about the history of Christians in these regions.

Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia were in what we know as first-century Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). We are not aware of official, organized, and recorded persecution of Christians in these areas until the second century. However, I would contend that persecution of Christians could have occurred even if we have no record of it. In other words, just because we don’t have a record of the persecution does not prove it did not happen. I would also like to point out that the famous correspondence between Pliny the Younger and Emperor Trajan about persecution of Christians in Asia Minor was a discussion of how to handle the persecution of Christians that was already occurring. The correspondence does not contain an “announcement” that persecution was to begin nor was it an “edict” from the emperor to persecute Christians. In fact, Trajan’s reply to Pliny’s inquiry suggests the persecution was not something new, but that the persecution of Christians had already occurred for a period of time

Guthrie correctly points out, “Christians were certainly made scapegoats in Rome, and the savage nature of Nero’s treatment of them must have been widely known throughout the provinces, where great apprehension must have arisen among the Christians. Peter may well have imagined an extension of the attack and wished to warn the Asian Christians of what was in store for them. There is nothing in the references to persecution in this epistle which rules out this hypothesis.”[21]

This correspondence between Pliny the Younger[22] and Emperor Trajan occurred in AD 110. Trajan had sent Pliny to Bithynia (one of the locations Peter addresses in 1 Peter 1:1) to clean up an administrative mess in the area. When Pliny arrives in Bithynia, he discovers that persecution of Christians is occurring, so he writes a letter to Trajan asking what Pliny should do about the persecution that is already occurring.

The doctrine taught in 1 Peter appears too similar to Paul’s doctrine, so 1 Peter can’t be written by Peter. Some scholars believe that there are many similarities in what is written in 1 Peter with what Paul writes in his letters. They believe the connections with Ephesians and Romans are significant.

Yet, as far as I can tell, nowhere does 1 Peter contain quotes from Paul’s letters, just common language, similar thoughts, etc. Furthermore, Romans and Ephesians are both considered longer works of Paul (Romans at sixteen chapters and Ephesians at six chapters), so it makes sense that a longer letter addressed to a general audience might match what Peter writes to a group of Christians spread out in a geographical region. Additionally, Paul is famous for addressing the law of Moses in contrast to faith in Jesus Christ, yet there is no mention of the Law in 1 Peter. We also could notice that 1 Peter omits any discussion of justification, the new Adam, the role of the flesh, or extended Old Testament quotations, all of which are common in Paul’s letters.

PETER’S AMENUENSIS. We learn about Peter’s amanuensis in 1 Peter 5:12, “Through Silvanus, our faithful brother (for so I regard him), I have written to you briefly, exhorting and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand firm in it!”[23] The word “Amanuensis” is the official term, but “scribe” or “secretary” is also a common term used and adequately describes what a amanuensis would have done in the first century.

His Name. “Silvanus” (in NASB, but in NIV and NLT translated as “Silas”) is the Roman latinized version of Silas which was his Greek name.[24] Silvanus became a Christian at the church in Jerusalem and was prophetically gifted and sent to Antioch to do ministry there (Acts 15:22, 27, 32). He traveled with Paul on Paul’s second missionary journey (in Acts 15:40-18:5 he’s mentioned eleven times), and he’s mentioned in several of Paul’s letters (2 Cor 1:19; 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1)

His Role. Silvanus, following first-century customs, likely had two potential roles as Peter’s amanuensis.

He Assisted Peter in Writing the Letter. If he was an amanuensis he could have been writing down the words of this letter as Peter dictated it to him. Perhaps word-for-word or maybe he had a role in shaping which words and phrases were used. Using an amanuensis was a common practice[25] in the first century because of the value of papyrus and low level of literacy that many people had.

He Assisted Peter in Delivering the Letter. This is an option too. Perhaps he only delivered the letter. Perhaps he wrote it down for Peter and delivered it to the churches in Asia Minor.

DATE. Because of the prominence of suffering in this letter, three dates are often proposed to connect the suffering of 1 Peter with suffering of the historical background. There are three common dates proposed for 1 Peter: During Trajan’s reign in AD 111, during Domitian’s reign in AD 90—100, or during Nero’s reign in AD 62—65. In my opinion, the third option is correct. This is the only option available if we believe Peter, the disciple of Jesus Christ and an apostle of the early church, wrote this letter! More specifically, I hold to the AD 63 date.

Why I support the AD 63 date. We know from history that a massive fire broke out in Rome in AD 64, that Nero blamed Christians for that fire, and Paul and Peter were both killed in the persecution of Christians that soon resulted from that fire. A bloodbath was created by Nero’s persecution of Christians in AD 64. Nero, as many historians have documented, was a stable and good emperor until the latter years of his life when he became a literal madman. With that said, it seems unlikely that Peter would tell his audience to submit to a government after AD 64 when Nero was chaotically persecuting Christians. This letter does not mention martyrdom, so it likely was written before the Nero persecution and murder of Christians that began in the fall of AD 64. I believe the letter was written in AD 63, yet Guthrie correctly admits, “It is impossible to fix the date with any exactness, but the period immediately preceding or during the Neronian persecutions would appear to be the most probable.”[26]

With that said, I believe Peter writes this letter in AD 63 from Rome. Peter sees the hints of a future wave of persecution coming, and he writes this letter to help the readers endure the suffering they’re experiencing as well as prepare them for more severe suffering that he believes is coming. I agree with Greg Forbes who writes, “In AD 64 Nero blamed Christians for the outbreak of a fire in Rome. This resulted in a brutal attack on the Christians, but this action appears to have been confined to Rome itself. Nevertheless, if Peter was writing from Rome during Nero’s persecution, he may well have been preparing his readers for trouble which he felt might soon spread to Asia minor.”[27]

As soon as someone describes persecution of Christians in AD 63 there usually is a refutation that no state persecution is recorded in extra biblical sources in Asia Minor (the destination of Peter’s letter) until AD 112. This was in Pliny’s letter to Emperor Trajan and Trajan’s reply, in which both letters make it clear that Christians who refused to acknowledge the Emperor as lord were martyred.

However, it’s important to note that persecution of Christians can occur without there being official documentation of it or an official policy formulated to ensure it happened. Forbes notes that the phrase Peter uses in 1 Peter 4:14–16 does not imply state persecution. Furthermore, he points out that a similar idea of unofficial localized persecution of Christians occurs in Acts 4:41 (cf. Mark 13:13).[28] Again, I agree with Forbes, “a more likely source for the suffering experienced by these readers was general abuse, ill treatment, and discrimination from the surrounding society as a whole . . . As it was deemed improper for one to depart from the religion of one’s fathers (for this disrupted the fabric of society), retaliation from the non Christian populace would hardly have been unexpected.”[29]

THE LOCATION FROM WHICH PETER WRITES HIS LETTER. Peter concludes his letter saying, “She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you greetings, and so does my son, Mark” (1 Pet 5:13). There are five main views of what location Peter is in when he writes from “Babylon.” Let’s explore each separately.

Peter’s Wife. Some believe the “She who is in Babylon” is a reference to peter’s wife. This is based on a connection to 1 Corinthians 9:5. However, this is a strange description of a wife. This view is highly unlikely.

A City in Egypt. There is a city in Egypt known as “Babylon.” However, there is no record from Scripture or church history that Peter ever traveled to or did ministry in the city of Babylon in Egypt. There was a small Roman military colony there. However, nowhere does the Alexandrian church claim that Peter ministered there. Guthrie asserts, “This Babylon [in Egypt] was so small a district that it seems highly improbable that Peter made his headquarters there without such a fact leaving any trace in early tradition.”[30]

A Region of Antioch. Because followers of Christ were first called Christians in Antioch, some say Peter wrote from there. Another line of support might be the “descent into hell” was connected with this area. Yet, this seems unlikely.

A Location on the Euphrates River. In the mind of an Israelite the word “Babylon” would bring up memories of the nation of Babylon with its city located on the Euphrates River. Similar to the Babylon in Egypt, we do not have any evidence from the Bible or extra biblical sources that Peter ever ministered from Babylon on the Euphrates. This region was scarcely populated in the mid-first-century. Additionally, all church tradition about Peter reveals his ministries were in the west, not the east. Furthermore, nothing is known of Mark working in the east. It’s also unlikely that Peter, Silvanus, and Mark would all be at this unlikely location.

This location, according to Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, 18.371-79) had no Jewish population in Peter’s life during the AD 60s. Church history does not reveal a Christian Church there in the first century.

A Figurative Reference to the City of Rome. With those four unlikely options, I believe that when Peter discusses “She who is in Babylon” hedescribes the church in Rome, in an encrypted figurative way. I think it’s a metaphor to describe Rome. Just as Babylon had been an enemy and persecutor of the nation of Israel; so now Rome is functioning in that same way that Babylon used to function.

It should not surprise us to see Peter use a metaphor to describe Rome because Peter’s letter is peppered with metaphors. In 1 Peter 1:2 he said we’re sprinkled with the blood of Jesus, in 1 Peter 2:2 he told the believers to desire milk of God’s Word, in 1 Peter 2:4–5 he said the Christians were being built up as living stones, in 1 Peter 5:1–4 he told the elders to shepherd the flock among themselves, and in 1 Peter 5:8–9 he describes Satan as a roaring lion.

But why mention Rome in this secretive way? Donald Guthrie notes, “It is probable that the cryptogram was used as a security measure. If at the time of writing, Rome was the centre of vicious action against Christianity, the avoidance of any mention of the Roman church would be a wise move if the letter fell into official hands. The writer evidently assumed that the readers would have understood the symbolism.”[31] Ray Stedman says Peer likely used “Babylon” to refer to Rome “because the idolatry, bloodlust, and immorality of ancient Babylon had infected the capital of the Roman Empire.”[32] Doug Moo and D. A. Carson write, “Contemporary scholars are virtually unanimous in viewing ‘Babylon’ as a symbol for worldly power drawn from Babylon’s role vis-à-vis Israel in the Old Testament.”[33]

AUDIENCE: The audience appears, in my opinion, to be more Gentile than Jewish (see 1 Pet 1:14; 2:9–10; 4:3–4). In 1 Peter 1:1b we read about, “those who reside as aliens, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.” Let’s examine both the people and places mentioned in this verse.

The People. They’re described as “aliens” which means sojourners, exiles, foreign residents. They are aliens because their citizenship is heavenly. They are temporary residents on earth because their eternal citizenship is in heaven. Later in Peter’s letter he describes his readers as, “as aliens and strangers” (1 Pet 2:11b). That phrase describes people with no rights or privileges. 1 Peter 2:11b has the same meaning as 1 Peter 1:1 meaning sojourners, exiles, foreign residents. They are aliens because their citizenship is heavenly. They are temporary residents on earth because their eternal citizenship is in heaven.

Locations. When we read, “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia,” we might find it hard to locate these places on a map. We need to ask: Are these “political” districts (a very large area) or are these “geographical” districts? I believe[34] these are geographical districts. If this letter is addressed to geographical districts, then this letter is directed to those who live north of the Taurus mountains. Support that Peter was writing to the geographical districts, not political districts, is that he mentions Pontus and Bithynia separately as geographical districts, but those two areas formed one administrative province.[35]

Why would Peter mention these locations in this order? Most likely, the order of the districts represents the traveler’s itinerary. The person delivering this letter would land at the port of Pontus, then visit the churches in Galatia, then travel next to Cappadocia, then travel next to Asia, and return to Bithynia.

People.

Social. These districts were known to have many wealthy residents. With that said, there also was a wide disparity between the wealthy land owners and merchants compared to the working classes. The churches to which Peter writes his letter were primarily composed of the poor working class. In Peter’s letter he addresses the behavior of slaves (1 Pet 2:18–25), but he does not address their masters.[36] Thus, I think we should conclude that the churches probably were mixed, but with a majority being working class. Guthrie is correct to conclude, “Our conclusion must be that these churches, like most in the primitive, were mixed in respect of the social status of their members.”[37]

Racial. While some have stated that the readers were Jewish (Origen), few today hold this view. The readers likely are not Jewish because they are described as having lived a previous empty way of life (1 Pet 1:18), they had evil desires when living in ignorance (1 Pet 1:14), that they did what pagans normally did (1 Pet 4:3–4), and they once were not a people but have been called out of darkness (1 Pet 2:9–10).[38] Additionally, this letter is addressed to residents in five geographical districts that were primarily Gentile. Guthrie comments based on this evidence, “It is difficult to see how these words could apply to any but Gentiles.”[39]

While the view that this letter was written to Jews living in these areas is often dismissed today, the view does have several good reasons to commend it.

The readers, who are described as “aliens” and “strangers” (1 Pet 1:1; 2:11) could have been people part of the Jewish diaspora (see 1 Pet 2:10; James 1:1).
The letter addresses the audience in subtle ways suggesting they are Jewish. For example, Peter refers to the readers as Sarah’s children (1 Pet 3:6), God’s elect (1 Pet 1:1, 2, 4, 9; cf. Pss 104:6, 23; Isa 65:9, 29), those who were called to live lives of holiness (1 Pet 1:15–16; cf. Lev 11:44–45; 19:2), and as a result are God’s kingdom of priests (1 Pet 2:9; cf. Exod 19:6).
The audience is contrasted with the gentiles. First Peter 2:12, “Keep your behavior excellent among the Gentiles, so that in the thing in which they slander you as evildoers, they may because of your good deeds, as they observe them, glorify God in the day of visitation.” 1 Peter 4:3, “For the time already past is sufficient for you to have carried out the desire of the Gentiles, having pursued a course of sensuality, lusts, drunkenness, carousing, drinking parties and abominable idolatries.”
Paul was known as the apostle to the gentiles; Peter was the apostle to the circumcision, thus we would expect to have his letter addressed to Jews (Gal 2:9).
Eusebius believed that first Peter was written to a Jewish audience (Ecclesiastical History 3.4.2).

While also appearing to talk to Jews, we must remember that New Testament writers saw Christianity as a new development of Judaism. Christianity was not new, but was a new phase of Judaism. So this language might be used for a gentile audience.

It is possible (and likely) that the churches Peter was writing to in these five geographical districts were mixed with both Jews and Gentiles. However, my guess would be that a large majority of those readers were Gentile.

How the Gospel Reached These Regions. We need to ask how the gospel first reached these regions to which Peter writes. There are two common views.

Jewish pilgrims who were in Jerusalem for Pentecost took the gospel back to Asia Minor. Perhaps the most popular view is that Jewish individuals from Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia were in Jerusalem for the feast of Pentecost when the Holy Spirit arrived in Acts 2. As the Holy Spirit begins the age we know as the church, these people returned back to their hometowns and took the gospel with them. In other words, Jewish pilgrims who were visiting Jerusalem for Pentecost in Acts 2 joined this “Jesus movement.” These individuals then took their faith back to Asia Minor. Evidence for this view is that Aquila, the husband of Priscilla, was a native of Pontus (Acts 18:2), yet he was in Jerusalem for Pentecost according to Acts 2:9–11.

People in these five geographical districts were evangelized by converts of Paul. These people were possibly evangelized through an extension of Paul’s ministry in Ephesus, see Acts 19:10. Paul traveled near these areas, but not through them on his three missionary journeys as recorded in the book of Acts. It is likely that Paul’s converts took the gospel to these five geographical districts to which Peter addresses his letter.

THEMES IN 1 PETER. I believe there are four themes that are prominent in this letter.

Suffering. The topic of suffering is mentioned in 1 Peter 1:6; 2:19–23; 4:1, 12–19; 5:1, 10.

Selection. The topic of election and predestination is taught in this letter when Peter mentions that his readers were chosen (1 Pet 1:2; 5:13), caused to be born again (1 Pet 1:3; 2:9), they have been called by God (1:5; 2:21; 5:10)

Salvation. The topic of salvation of believers is again reinforced when Peter writes about being chosen (1:1–2), born again (1:3–5, 23), called (1:15), redeemed (1:19), how Christ died for sins (3:18), about their baptism (3:21), and how they’ve received grace as God’s children (1:13–14).

Sanctification. The topic of sanctification is indirectly taught in this letter as Peter tells his readers to prepare their minds (1:13–16), conduct themselves in fear (1:17–21), love one another (1:22–25), desire good food (2:1–2), abstain from worldly behavior (2:11–12), submit to human institutions (2:13–17), submit to your masters (2:18–25), serve your wives (3:1–6), submit to your husbands (3:7), everyone be good (3:8–12), move past the desires of the flesh (4:3–6), and be in good relationship with others (4:7–11).

SUFFERING IN 1 PETER. A constant debate occurs about suffering described in 1 Peter. According to Moo and Carson, the problem of suffering “lies beneath virtually every verses of this letter.”[40] One commentary reveals, “First Peter was written to Christians who were experiencing various forms of persecution, men and women whose stand for Jesus Christ made them aliens and strangers in the midst of a pagan society.”[41]

With that said, we must ask some questions about this suffering. Was it real or perceived? Was it current or future? Was it occurring at the time of Peter’s writing or something he thought would be in the future? Was it official for unofficial? Was it local or universal? Was it continual or sporadic? Was it actual or potential?

Virtually all scholars agree that the “emperors chosen scapegoat was the Christians, who were already hated because they were associated with Jews, and because they were seen as being hostile to the Roman culture.”[42] Furthermore, “The persecution and suffering that Peter did refer to was primarily social and religious rather than legal. A hostile pagan society would slander, ridicule, discriminate against, and even inflict physical abuse on those whose lifestyles had radically changed because of their faith in Christ.”[43]

It is my opinion that the suffering of Peter’s audience was local unofficial suffering. I believe Michael Bird and NT Wright are correct when they write, “They do not appear to be facing organized persecution, sponsored officially by this or that city-state. Their adversaries are more likely local groups who have come to regard Christians as dangerous social deviants and are pressuring them, verbally and perhaps physically, to return to their normal web of socio-religious relationships and cultural and religious practices that characterized the city and/or province.”[44]

We must remember that in the Greco-Roman culture, to abstain from worshipping the local gods was a risk. This could bring trouble to the region, city, community, or family. When trouble came, pagans often blamed Christians because of their lack of appeasement to the various deities and goddesses of their culture.

I believe Moo and Carson accurately summarize the suffering Christians were experiencing as, “The hostility Christians were known to have faced from the general Roman population. By refusing to engage in the quasi religious customs surrounding the official Roman governmental structures, by resolutely setting themselves against some of the immoral practices prevalent at the time, and by meeting so often on their own to celebrate the Lord’s supper, Christians were regarded with suspicion and hostility. The readers of first Peter were probably being criticized, mocked, discriminated against, and perhaps even brought into court on trumped up charges.”[45]

Jesus had told the disciples that they would experience persecution and troubles (John 15:18—16:4, 33; 21:18–19). Peter tells us disciples how to endure those persecutions and troubles.

In the context of suffering we learn that salvation is only possible through the sufferings of Christ. The verb, pasch[o] is used twelve times in 1 Peter and only eleven times in the other New Testament letters. “Peter sensed a gathering storm that would bring intensified persecution to the Christian community. The church had known opposition ever since Pentecost, but it was increasing in severity as Peter wrote.”[46] The late J Vernon McGee rightly asserts, “Simon Peter is not going to give us his theory of suffering. Simon Peter is going to speak to us out of his own tremendous experience, and it will become very wonderful to us as it becomes your experience and my experience.”[47]

For those in the midst of suffering, Peter knew what to say. He watched Jesus suffer and overcome. Those who are similarly facing suffering because of their steadfast faith can confidently put their trust in him. Then they, too, will share in Christ’s victory.”[48]

SALVATION IN 1 PETER. It’s important to note Peter’s use of “salvation” (1 Pet 1:5, 7, 9, 13; 2:2) in this letter because he means something different than we might think. When Peter mentions “salvation” he’s describing ultimate salvation in the future. Peter uses words different than other New Testament writers. Paul’s salvation was initiation. He looks at “saved” as how you get in. James’ salvation was practical or progressive. He looks at “saved” as what you do once you’re in. Peter’s salvation was glorification. He looks at “saved” as a future experience to look forward to eternally.

HYMNS IN 1 PETER. Some scholars see three early Christian hymns that made their way into this letter: 1 Peter 1:20; 2:21-24; and 3:18–20.[49] Other scholars see 1 Peer 1:3–5 as one hymn, 1 Peter 1:20 as a second hymn, and 1 Peter 3:18, 20 as another hymn. Yet another view would be to see 1 Peter 1:3–5 as one hymn, 1 Peter 1:20; 3:18, 22; 4:6 as a second hymn, then 1 Peter 2:22–25 as a third hymn, and 1 Peter 5:5–9 as a fourth hymn.[50]

APPLICATIONS.

1. Prepare to grow.

2. Prepare to suffer.

3. Prepare to endure.

4. Prepare to exude Christ’s suffering.

Another way to think of the applications of this letter is to:

-Endure trials

-Enjoy salvation

-Engage in spiritual growth

Outlines of 1 Peter

Here’s one outline that I created which I think summarizes 1 Peter well and focuses on the content of the book.

I. LIFE IN THE SON (1:3—2:10)

II. LIFE IN SOCIETY (2:11—3:12)

III. LIFE IN SUFFERING (3:13—4:19)

IV. LIFE IN SERVICE (5:1–11)

Another outline I like is from the MacArthur Study Bible:

I. REMEMBER OUR GREAT SALVATION (1:3—2:10)

II. REMEMBER OUR EXAMPLE BEFORE MEN (2:11—4:6)

III. REMEMBER OUR LORD WILL RETURN (4:7—5:11)

I also like the outline in the Bible Knowledge Commentary[51] which follows:

I. CUSTOMARY SALUTATION (1:1–2)

II. CHOSEN FOR NEW BIRTH (1:3—2:10)

III. CHALLENGED TO NEW BEHAVIOR (2:11—3:7)

IV. CAUTIONED FOR NEW PERSECUTION (3:8—4:19)

V. CHARGED WITH NEW RESPONSIBILITY (5:1–11)

VI. CONCLUSION (5:12–14)

Donald Guthrie’s outline[52] is simple yet exegetically sound:

I. THE GREETING (1:1–2)

II. THE NATURE OF CHRISTIAN SALVATION (1:3—2:10)

III. THE CHRISTIAN RELATIONSHIPS (2:11—3:12)

IV. THE CHRISTIAN SUFFERING (3:13—4:19)

V. CONCLUSION (5:12–14)

Mark Hitchcok outlines this book this way:

I. INTRODUCTION (1:1–2)

II. SALVATION—THE BELIEVER’S DESTINY (1:3—2:10)

III. SUBMISSION—THE BELIEVER’S DUTY (2:11—3:12)

IV. SUFFERRING—THE BELIEVER’S DISCIPLINE (3:13—5:11)

V. CONCLUSION (5:12–14)

Here’s another outline I created that focuses on the chapter divisions of the book.

I. SAINTS IN GOD’S KINGDOM (ch. 1). We could summarize this chapter into two sections: 1 Peter 1:3–12 is about walking in hope through suffering while 1 Peter 1:13-25 is about walking in holiness and harmony with others as we endure suffering.

A. Greeting (vv. 1–2). In these two verses we have an identification of the author (v. 1a) and an identification of those he addresses in the letter (vv. 1b–2).

B. The Salvation and Suffering You Know About (vv. 3–9). Here in verses three to five we learn about regeneration (our source of hope) and in verses six to nine we learn about rejoicing (our attitude of hope). In 1 Peter 1:3–9 we learn about the blessings of the gospel, in 1 Peter 1:10–12 we learn that these blessings were foreseen, in 1 Peter 1:13–16 we learn that heirs of those blessings must change their manner of life, and in 1 Pet 1:17–21 we learn the basis of a believer’s confidence must not be forgotten.[53]

C. The Result of that Salvation (vv. 10–21). While verses three to five taught us about regeneration (our source of hope) and verses six to nine taught us about rejoicing (our attitude of hope), now in verses ten through twelve we learn about revelation (our search for hope). I like Ray Stedman who summarizes 1 Peter 1:13—2:12 as “Sanctification” by being holy (1 Pet 1:13–21), loving one another (1 Pet 1:22–25), desiring the pure milk of the Word (1 Pet 2:1–10), and abstaining from sinful lusts (1 Pet 2:11–12).[54]

D. The Word Preached Among You (vv. 22–25)

II. SUBMITTING IN GOD’S PLANS (ch. 2)

A. The Picture of Believers (vv. 1–3). A broader outline for 1 Peter 1:22—2:3 would be that heirs have responsibilities and that heirs form a spiritual community (1 Pet 2:4–10).[55]

B. The Holy House of God (vv. 4–10). I think we can summarize these first two sections of 1 Peter 2 as describing the children in God’s family (vv. 1-3), the stones in God’s building (vv. 4-8), and the priests in God’s nation (vv. 9-10).

C. Keep Your Behavior Excellent (vv. 11–12). These two verses begin a long section that elaborates the importance of submission in front of the lost (vv. 11-12), submission in the context of government (vv. 13-17), and submission in the context of work (vv. 18-25).

D. Submit to Human Government (vv. 13–17). First Peter 2:13 begins a series of “duties” that Christians experience. Peter describes the Christian’s duty to governing authorities (2:13–17), duty of slaves (2:18–25), and the duty of wives and husbands (3:1–7).

E. Submit to Human Masters (vv. 18–25)

III. SERVANTS IN GOD’S HOME (ch. 3)

A. Wives and Husbands (vv. 1–7). This section can be divided up into two categories: instruction for submissive wives (vv. 1-6) and instruction for husbands (v. 7). In the instruction for submissive wives (vv. 1-6) Peter addresses their behavior (vv. 1-2), beauty (vv. 3-4), and biography (vv. 5-6). In the instruction for husbands (v. 7) Peter addresses how husbands should be living with consideration and compassion (v. 7a) as well as living with honor as a fellow heir (v. 7b).

B. Life in Harmony (vv. 8–12). Peter addresses how to live a life in harmony by addressing his readers’ mental attitude (vv. 8-9), method of action (vv. 10-11), and motivation for behavior (v. 12).

C. Life in Suffering (vv. 13–17). In this section Peter provides principles in suffering (vv. 13-14), practices in suffering (vv. 15-16), and potential in suffering (v. 17).

D. Life in Christ (vv. 18–22).[56] These five verses contain important teachings about Christ’s suffering (v. 18), Christ’s sharing (vv. 19-20), Christ’s sustaining (v. 21), and Christ’s summit (v. 22).

IV. SUFFERING IN GOD’S WORLD (ch. 4)

A. Christ Suffered to Bring Death to our Sins (vv. 1–6). In this section Peter describes our attitude we should have (vv. 1-2), the antagonism we face (vv. 3-5), and the anticipation we should have (v. 6).

B. Christ Suffered So You can Use Your Gifts to Serve others (vv. 7–11). As it relates to our spiritual gifts Peter tells us about our motivation in the first half of verse seven (our incentive is that the end is near), he tells us about our ministry in verses seven through eleven (our instruction and application is to serve in God’s strength), and he tells us about our mark at the end of verse eleven (our outcome is that we want God to be praised).

C. Christ Suffered, You Suffer, So Rejoice (vv. 12–19). While in the difficult position of suffering, Peter explains to us the situation (vv. 12-14), the cause (vv. 15-16), and the response (vv. 17-19).

V. SHEPHERDING IN GOD’S CHURCH (ch. 5)

A. The Job Description for Spiritual Shepherds (vv. 1–5). First Peter 5:1–4 contains good instructions for elders of churches. Peter teaches about our intention (v. 1) to be active in ministry, our instruction (vv. 2-3) to minister the right way, and our incentive (v. 4) to minister with expectation of future reward.

B. The Job Description for Spiritual People (vv. 6–11). First Peter 5:5–7 contains two appeals: an appeal to young men (v. 5a) and an appeal to all people (vv. 5b-7).Another way to divide the end of 1 Peter 5 is to look at Satan (vv. 8-9), struggles (vv. 10-11), and summation (vv. 12-14).

C. Goodbye (vv. 12–14).

MY FAVORITE QUOTES ABOUT 1 PETER

“First Peter has been one of the most warmly received and widely used books in the New Testament. It breeds the spirit of confidence and hope in the midst of suffering. It is a loving call to action and a source of strength for those enduring suffering. Saints through the ages have drawn strength from peter’s instruction.”[57]

SERMONS FROM 1 PETER – “SUSTENANCE FOR SAINTS”

—

Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

[1] For a good discussion of the imperative in both one Peter and general New Testament study, see Greg W. Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Guide for the Greek New Testament (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2014), 4–7.

[2] This is the third most quotations in the New Testament (only Hebrews and Revelation have more quotations). Peter quotes Isaiah 40:6–8 is 1 Peter 1:24–25a, Isaiah 28:16 in 1 Peter 2:6, Psalm 118:22 in 1 Peter 2:7, Isaiah 8:14 in 1 Peter 2:8, Isaiah 53:9 in 1 Peter 2:22; Psalm 34:12–16 in 1 Peter 3:10–12, , Proverbs 11:31 in 1 Peter 4:18, and Proverbs 3:34 in 1 Peter 5:5.

[3] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[4] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 781–782.

[5] N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2019), 762.

[6] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 838.

[7] “The letter’s content and the witness of church history support beyond any reasonable doubt the simple affirmation made in verse 1. The letter indeed comes from ‘Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ.’” Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 838.

[8] Church tradition also tells us that it’s based on Peter’s teaching that Mark writes his gospel shortly after Peter’s death (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.39.15).

[9] Ken Hanna, From Gospels to Glory (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 417.

[10] Notes adapted from Forbes, 1 Peter, 1.

[11] We could also connect this verse with Acts 3:12–26 and Acts 10:34–43.

[12] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 798.

[13] MacArthur Study Bible, 1905.

[14] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 760.

[15] Because of this use by Polycarp, some scholars believed Polycarp did not know who the author of first Peter was.

[16] Polycarp, Philippians 1.3 uses 1 Peter 1:8; Philippians 2.1-2 uses 1 Peter 1:13–14; Philippians 5.3 uses 1 Peter 2.11, 3.14; Philippians 8.1 uses 1 Peter 2:21–24; Philippians 10.2 uses 1 Peter 2:12–13. Furthermore, Eusebius notes how Polycarp used 1 Peter in Ecclesiastical History 4.14.9.

[17] See Against Heresies 4.9.2; 4.16.5; 5.7.2.

[18] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 762.

[19] These reasons are adapted from Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 763–76.

[20] “We are left in no doubt that Peter employed Silas as his scribe or secretary, for he tells us so in 5:12. But did this amount to co-authorship, and if it did not, what degree of latitude did Peter allow Silas in expressing his thoughts? It was well known that ancient secretaries were at times allowed considerable freedom in writing down their master’s ideas. Indeed, in certain cases the secretary would be given only the barest outline of the contents and would then produce the letter in conformity with the outline. The master would, of course, check over the finished product and it would be assumed that the contents were authenticated by him. Although the language would be that of the amanuensis the fundamental ideas would be those of the master.” Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 768

[21] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 772.

[22] Pliny the Younger was the governor over one of the provinces that Peter addressed in his letter.

[23] First Peter 5:12 is often seen as the “purpose” of the book of 1 Peter.

[24] BDAG states that Silvanus of 1 Peter is surely the same man named Silas in Acts (p. 923 of BDAG).

[25] In Romans 16:22 Tertius is identified as the one who “wrote down” the letter for Paul.

[26] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 788.

[27] Greg Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Greek Guide to the New Testament (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2014),2.

[28] Greg Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Greek Guide to the New Testament (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2014),3.

[29] Greg Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Greek Guide to the New Testament (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2014),3.

[30] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 793.

[31] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 794.

[32] Ray C. Stedman, Adventuring Through the Bible: A Comprehensive Guide to the Entire Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House, 2012), 812.

[33] D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 646.

[34] Following Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 783.

[35] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 783.

[36] However, Peter does address the duties of citizenship (1 Pet 2:11–17), which would apply to free men.

[37] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 784.

[38] Adapted from Guthrie.

[39] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 785.

[40] D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 638.

[41] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 837.

[42] MacArthur Study Bible, 1906.

[43] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 838.

[44] N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2019), 762.

[45] D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 639.

[46] Ken Hanna, From Gospels to Glory (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 419–20.

[47] J. Vernon McGree, First Peter, Thru the Bible, vol. 54 (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1991), xiii.

[48] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 359.

[49] Bultmann, pp. 1–14.

[50] Boismar, Quarte Hymnes Baptismates dans la Primeire Epitre de Pierr, cited in Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 799.

[51] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 839.

[52] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 800–04.

[53] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 800.

[54][54] Ray C. Stedman, Adventuring Through the Bible: A Comprehensive Guide to the Entire Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House, 2012), 813.

[55] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 801.

[56] “First Peter 3:18–22 stands as one of the most difficult New Testament texts to translate and then interpret.” MacArthur Study Bible, 1907.

[57] Ken Hanna, From Gospels to Glory (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 416.