Bible Book Introductions

An Introduction to Malachi

June 18, 2026 by Christopher L. Scott

An Introduction to Malachi

The book of Malachi receives little attention and what it does receive is usually within the context of a sermon on tithing. Surely, there is more to this little book than a proof text for a campaign or building program. I agree with Allen Ross who writes, “It is a book that should be studied regularly by Christians, or better yet, preached often in churches with all the passionate intensity of the prophet.”[1] Even though the circumstances between Malachi’s time and now have changed, the message is still just as relevant. Israel, for the best, had done away with idolatry because of their captivity in Babylon. But God’s work to purify the people was not yet done. Malachi wants the people to “get things right.” If I was to summarize this book in one word it would be “giving” and one phrase it would be “abiding in God.”[2]

BIG IDEA. God has given Israel a path to follow, but Israel wonders where God is because they have left his path. If they return to God’s path they will find God. The book of Malachi is about the sins and judgment of Israel, but also how God still loves his people and will restore them.[3]

KEY VERSES: “Remember the law of Moses My servant, even the statutes and ordinances which I commanded him in Horeb for all Israel” (Malachi 4:4, NASB).[4]

AUTHOR. Malachi 1:1 identifies the author as the man, Malachi. He is not mentioned elsewhere in the Old Testament, but he is extensively quoted in the New Testament. For example, Malachi 4:5-6 is quoted in Matthew 11:10, 14; 17:11-12; Mark 9:10-11; Luke 1:19. Malachi 3:1 is quoted in Matthew 11:10; Mark 1:2. Malachi 1:2-3 is quoted in Romans 9:13.

Nothing is known of Malachi’s family line. Malachi is one of the many prophetic books that name its author, however some believe “Malachi” is a designation for “messenger” or “my messenger” from Malachi 3:1 (which is a “divine possessive”). In this way, some believe the book of Malachi was written by an anonymous author, and “Malachi” is not a proper name.[5] The Hebrew word “Malachi” appears in both Malachi 1:1 and Malachi 3:1. However, in Malachi 3:1 that word refers to a future coming messenger (not to the prophet Malachi). In other words, the Hebrew word, “malachi” which means “My Messenger” in Malachi 3:1 is the one identified as the person coming in the future and should not be identified as the author.

I love this summary from the Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, “The prophet Malachi preached to a diverse audience. His sermons were directed to the disillusioned, the cynical, the callous, the dishonest, the apathetic, the doubting, the skeptical and the outright wicked in postexilic Judah. Yet, as a sensitive pastor, Malachi offered the ‘valentine’ of God’s love to a disheartened people. As a lofty theologian, he instructed the people in a basic doctrinal catechism, highlighting the nature of God as universal king, faithful suzerain and righteous judge. As Yahweh’s stern prophet, Malachi rebuked corrupt priests and warned of the coming day of God’s judgment. As spiritual guide, he exhorted his audience to a more sincere life of worship and challenged the people to live out the ethical standards of the Mosaic covenant. Most important, Malachi was Yahweh’s messenger and his essential message to Israel was profoundly simple: ‘ “I have always loved you,” said the Lord’ (Mal 1:2).”[6]

AUDIENCE. Life was not easy for the Jews that were in Judah after the exile. Their harvests were poor and were the focus of locust damage (Mal 3:11). Both the people and priests were violating the mosaic law regarding sacrifices, tithes, offerings, and marriages. The fire, passion, and fervor that Israel had to restore their temple, city, and nation had extinguished itself.

POSITION IN THE CANON. In the Hebrew Bible, Malachi brings the second section, neb’im, of the three-part cannon to an end. In our English bibles the book of Malachi ends the Old Testament because our English Bibles follow the Septuagint (known as the LXX and represents the Greek tradition). This position likely was because Malachi was the last to minister. The book concludes with a look forward with anticipation to the prophet Elijah, which Jesus identifies as John the Baptist (Matt 11:14).

DATE. The situation of the temple, state of sacrifices, and way of life suggest a date after Haggai and Zachariah. Because there are no time indicators in the book,[7] the time decision is based on internal evidence. The author never links his work to a specific or precise historical event. Here are three potential views that scholars often describe. I agree with the Lexham Bible Dictionary that states, “most scholars find it difficult to pinpoint the exact time of Malachi’s ministry in Israel.”[8]

Just Prior to the Book of Ezra (likely before BC 540). This is because there is no mention in Malachi of Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:3) or Nehemiah (Neh 13:13, 23-27). Some say it was Malachi’s preaching that prepared the people’s hearts for the repentance that occurred under Ezra (see Ezra 9:1—10:5).

Just Prior to Nehemiah’s Governorship During the Early Years of Nehemiah’s Work (about BC 444). Because of the similar conditions between Ezra and Malachi as well as Nehemiah 13:10, it suggests that since Malachi gives no hints of reforming, then the issues Malachi dealt with continued.

Contemporary to Nehemiah in about BC 433—424.[9] Most conservative Christian scholars believe Malachi was a contemporary of Nehemiah because of similar conditions (Mal 3:5; Neh 5:1-13) related to tithing (Mal 3:7-10; Neh 10:37-29), divorce and mixed marriages (Mal 2:10-16; Neh 10:30; 13:23-29).[10] This is the view I hold. In my opinion, Nehemiah’s absence from Jerusalem (433-424 BC) best describes Malachi’s time in Jerusalem. Nehemiah returns in Nehemiah 13:1-31. The New Bible Dictionary agrees, “It is impossible to date the book precisely, but it may be that it was composed during Nehemiah’s visit to Susa. At least it would seem to come from approximately this time.”[11] In summary, the topics that Malachi addresses (divorce, mixed marriages, social injustice, corruption in the priesthood) suggest that he was a contemporary to Ezra and Nehemiah who were both combating these same issues.

Another View of 516-490 BC. Careful language study of Malachi’s oracles reveals a close connection on the Hebrew language used by Haggai and Zechariah.^[12]

Concluding Thoughts on the Date of Malachi. As we discuss the date of the book of Malachi we need to also keep in mind the picture this author paints, “Malachi resembles a legal case that is set within a courtroom. Most of the prophets came preaching messages from God, proclaiming destruction for sin and restoration for repentance through well-crafted rhetoric. Malachi, on the other hand, seems comfortable in the language of the priest.”[13]

QUESTION AND ANSWER FORMAT. There are twenty-three questions in the book of Malachi. Since Malachi’s audience was skeptical, he used interrogation and reply as a way for his message to penetrate the people.[14] Malachi knew what the people were thinking so he dealt with their questions and answers.[15] It could be said that Malachi follows a point-counterpoint format. He raises a point made by certain people, and then contradicts it. We see the same pattern in Jeremiah 2:23-25, 35-27; 8:8-9; Ezekiel 12:21-28; Isaiah 40:27-28.

THEMES. I believe there are four themes prominent in the book of Malachi. Let’s examine each one briefly.

Marriage. God is unhappy with Israel because they have married daughters from foreign gods (Mal 2:10-12) and have in effect divorced God (Mal 2:13-28).

Tithing/Giving. Israel is giving a poor quality of gifts to God (Mal 1:6-14) as well as a poor amount (Mal 3:7-12).

Priests. God holds the priests responsible for all the bad that has occurred (Mal 2:1-9).

God’s Law. The people had walked away from God’s word. Various places in the book God’s word is described as “commandment,” “covenant,” “instruction,” “my ways,” “my statutes,” “book of remembrances,” “ordinances.”

An Outline of the Book of Malachi

I. HONOR YOUR GOD (ch. 1)

A. Because He Loved You and Chose You (1:1-6)

B. With Your Offering (1:7-14)

II. HONOR YOUR COMMITMENT (ch. 2)

A. The Priests Need to Return to Godly Ways (2:1-9)

B. The Husbands Need to Return to Godly Ways (2:10-17)

III. HONOR YOUR MESSENGERS (ch. 3)

A. There Will Be One Clearing the Path (3:1-6)

B. There Was One Telling You the Path to Take (3:7-18)

IV. HONOR YOUR LORD (ch. 4)

PERSONAL APPLICATIONS

ARTICLES FROM MALACHI

SERMONS FROM MALACHI – “A U-TURN TOWARD GOD”

(sorry for the poor audio quality on these sermons which were recorded in 2021 before our church had upgraded our audio recording equipment)

[1] Allen Ross, Malachi Then and Now (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2018), vii.

[2] In the future I hope to update this article with additional contributions from: Tremper Longman III and Raymond Dillard, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 2^nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2006); Ken Hanna, From Moses to Malachi (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015); Michael Shepherd, A Commentary on the Book of the Twelve (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2018); C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago, IL: Moody, 2007); Warren Wiersbe, Be Amazed (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2010); Ralph Smith, Micah–Malachi, WBC 32 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic: 1984); Robert Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1990).

[3] “The message of Malachi is all about ‘getting things right.’ The thrust of Malachi’s preaching may be placed under the umbrella theme ‘covenant,’ specifically the covenant of Jacob (i.e., the patriarchs [Mal 1:2]), the covenant of Levi (Mal 2:4–5, an obscure reference, perhaps an allusion to the covenant made with Phinehas in Num 25:10–13), the covenant of marriage (Mal 2:14) and the covenant of Moses (Mal 4:4). The essential idea of covenant is that of an agreement or treaty that establishes a relationship between parties with attendant obligations and responsibilities. It is not surprising, then, that three of Malachi’s disputations deal with right relationships. The prophetic messenger also works on the premise that proper knowledge of God and his covenant is essential to maintaining these right relationships.” A. E. Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, ed. Mark J. Boda and Gordon J. McConville (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2012), 530.

[4] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[5] “The argument cannot be irrefutably proved either way. Thus, we can only uphold the tradition that a prophet named Malachi, about whom we know virtually nothing, served as God’s ‘messenger’ for this oracle.” Rob O’Lynn, “Malachi, Book of,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[6] Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in Old Testament Dictionary: Prophets, 525.

[7] The only exception is the designation of Edom (Mal 1:3-4) which has a broad range of years.

[8] O’Lynn, “Malachi, Book of,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary.

[9] Ross, Malachi Then and Now, 4. Ross believes the date would have been 440-420.

[10] Kiel takes this position, 12 Minor Prophets, vol. 2, 427.

[11] E. J. Young and J. G. Baldwin, “Malachi, Book Of,” in New Bible Dictionary, ed. D. R. W. Wood et al. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 718–719.

[12] See Andrew Hill, “Malachi” in Richard Patterson and Andrew Hill’s Cornerstone Biblical Commentary vol. 10, Minor Prophets: Hosea-Malachi, ed. by Philip Comfort (Carole Stream, IL: Tyndale, 2008), 611-612.

[13] O’Lynn, “Malachi, Book of,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary.

[14] Ross, Malachi Then and Now, 5-6.

[15] Ross, Malachi Then and Now, 6.

An Introduction to Joel

May 4, 2026 by Christopher L. Scott

While Joel is famous for its eschatological reference to “locusts” and the “Day of the Lord,” it is perhaps most relevant to our lives as it teaches us about God’s character, the holy lives he calls us to live, and how God is forgiving and patient with us when we repent and return to him. The one-word description I would give for Joel would be “judging.”

BIG IDEA. Joel preached about impending doom that would come upon Judah, however because of God’s loving and forgiving character, God would relent if Judah repented of their wrong, and as a result would punish Judah’s enemies.

KEY VERSES. These are the two verses I believe are the key to this book: “’Yet even now,’ declares the Lord, ‘Return to Me with all your heart, And with fasting, weeping and mourning; And rend your heart and not your garments.’ Now return to the Lord your God, For He is gracious and compassionate, Slow to anger, abounding in lovingkindness And relenting of evil” (Joel 2:12-13, NASB).[1] I also like Joel 3:20–21 as potential key verses of the book. However, some people see Joel 2:18 as a “hinge” verse or “pivot” verse in the book. Ken Hanna says Joel 1:15 and 2:28-29 are key verses of the book.[2]

AUTHOR. We learn about Joel in the opening verse of the book: “The word of the LORD that came to Joel, the son of Pethuel” (Joel 1:1, NASB). There are twelve other men named “Joel” in the Bible, however none of those men have the same father’s name that Joel has in Joel 1:1.[3] The name joel in Hebrew means “Yahweh is God.” We have no other biographical information about him. “The fact that no other information is included in the superscription may imply that Joel was well known to his contemporaries and that further identification was unnecessary.”[4]

There is no reason (as others have stated) that we should question that Joel was a real prophet responsible for this book. We have no information about which king was in charge when Joel spoke, but we can make a good guess about where he was when he wrote down these words. Joel likely was a native of Jerusalem from where he prophesied (Joel 1:9; 2:15–17, 23, 32; 3:1). Joel likely was in Jerusalem when he recorded this book for two reasons. One, he calls for the trumpet to sound in Zion (Joel 2:1, 15). Two, he speaks of reviving Jerusalem and Judah (Joel 3:1, 16). He was obviously from Judah based on regular references to Zion, Jerusalem, and Judah. Furthermore, some believe that Joel was a priest as well as a prophet based on his mention of both the temple and the priests (Joel 1:13–14; 2:17). However, he at times suggests that he is distinct from the priests (Joel 1:13; 2:17).

AUDIENCE. Joel’s message is delivered to the people and priests of the temple in Jerusalem (Joel 1:2, 13). Israel is not mentioned except in a generic manner to describe the people of God (Joel 2:27; 3:2, 16). Following are mentions in the book: “Zion”[5] (seven times in Joel 2:1, 15, 23, 32; 3:16, 17, 21), “Jerusalem” (six times in Joel 2:32; 3:1, 6, 16, 17, 20), “Judah” (six times in Joel 3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19, 20), “inhabitants” of the land (three times in Joel 1:2, 14; 2:1), God’s “people” (six times in 2:16, 18, 19, 26; 3:2, 16), and “elders” (1:2, 14). It has been said, and I would agree, that a present crisis among the nation appears to be the occasion for prophesying about a future catastrophe.

DATE. Joel, along with Obadiah, are prophets we cannot date with certainty. Various dates have been proposed from the ninth century until second centuries. “Probably no book of the Bible has had a wider range of dates assigned to it.”[6] We cannot establish the date with dogmatism, however three dates have commonly been proposed.

In Joel several nations are mentioned as enemies of Israel (Phoenicians, Philistines, Egypt, Edom, the Greeks, Sabateans). It’s tempting to use the names of these enemies to date the book. However, these are traditional enemies of Israel, so to date the book based on when these nations were prominent or simply active is cautious. Greek trade in the Levant is known from sources of Assyria in as early as the eighth century (Joel 3:6).[7] The Sabeans dominated trade routes to the east in the fifth century (Joel 3:8), but they were also active in the period of Solomon (1 Kings 10; 2 Chron 9).[8]

Another puzzling aspect to Joel’s work is that it is similar to several other prophets. Did Joel prophesy first and others quote him? Did Joel prophesy later and quote those other prophets? Did Joel use common language, images, and metaphors that all prophets used?[9] To be transparent, we are not always sure. With that said, let’s look at the three common dates proposed for Joel.

Early Pre-Exilic (835–796 BC or 835–830 BC). This would be early in the reign of Joash before the Assyrian period. This date coincides with King Joash (835–795 BC) who was under the regency of priests when he ascended to the throne as king (2 Kings 11:12, 17, 21; 12:2; 2 Chron 22:16–17; 24:15).

Strengths.

Location in the Canon between Hosea (8^th century) and Amos (8^th century)[10] favors an early date.
Presumes the existence and routine operation of the temple (Joel 1:9, 13–16; 2:15–17).
The wall around Jerusalem was still standing (Joel 2:9). This likely points to a time before the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BC.
Reference to pre-exilic enemies such as Tyre, Sidon, Philistia (Joel 3:4), Egypt, and Edom (Joel 3:19) support an early pre-exilic date. If the book was written in post-exilic time, we would expect to see the enemies as Syria, Assyria, and Babylon. “If the Book of Joel was written in the ninth century b.c., the reference to Egypt in Joel 3:19 may allude to her acts of violence committed during the invasion of the Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (ca 926 b.c.; cf. 1 Kings 14:25–26).”^[11]
No mention of kings or monarchy might suggest the monarchy has a limited role when Joash was under the regency of priests when he ascended to the throne at the age of seven (see 2 Kings 11–2; 2 Chron 23–24).
Absence of allusions to Syria, Assyria, and Babylonians suggests an early pre-exilic date before these nations became prominent enemies of Israel.
Conversely, the references to Egypt and Edom do support an early pre-exilic date as these were prominent enemies of Judah during the ninth century.
It appears that the book of Amos, which was written later, borrows from Joel as Joel was written first. For example, it appears Amos 1:2 is a quote of Joel 3:16 and Amos 9:13 is a quote of Joel 3:18.
Assyrian inscriptions made in the eighth century mention the Greeks in a similar way to Joel 3:6.
The style and structure of the Hebrew text in Joel suggests a pre-exilic date. In the book of Joel there does not appear any influence of the Persian language or Greek language into Joel’s wording. We often see this influence in post-exilic books such as Daniel, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, etc.

Weaknesses

The LXX does not place Joel between Hosea and Joel, but instead after Micah.
There’s no condemnation of worship of foreign deities or gods in Joel, which was often a pre-exilic staple for prophets of that time.
There’s no mention of a king in Judah. However, Joel (if it’s pre-exilic) is not the only early prophet that does not mention a king. Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, and Habakkuk do not directly mention a king in Judah even though they were pre-exilic prophets.
Most Old Testament prophets in the Babylonian period delivered oracles against the nations of Tyre, Sidon, Philistia, Egypt, and Edom (Jer 46—47; Ezek 27—30; Zeph 2:4–7).
Joel referenced a dispersion of Jews from Judah into surrounding nations (Joel 3:1–2), which is something Assyria and Babylon both did, but not in the ninth century. “Population relocation was a routine policy of the Assyrians; the annals of Sennacherib report that he had already subjected Judah to a major deportation, so that references to a Diaspora need not refer to the Babylonian captivity alone.”[12]
Joel regularly mentions Judah and Jerusalem, but not Israel or Samaria, thus suggesting a date after 722 BC when the Assyrians destroyed Samaria and took Israel into captivity. However, Joel is a smaller book with only three chapters. If we looked at Amos 1—4 (without a superscription) or Micah 5—7, we might make the same conclusion, but we know from the expanded portions of those books that there was a king at that time.
While a reference to Tyre, Sidon, Philistia, Egypt, and Edom (Joel 3:4, 19) might suggest a ninth century date, Old Testament Babylonian period prophets also delivered oracles against those same nations mentioned (see Jer 46—47; 49:7–22; Ezek 27—30; Zeph 2:4–7).

Post-Exilic. This would be after the exile of 586 BC. This is perhaps the most common view today among Old Testament scholars.

Strengths

There’s no mention of kings or royal officials in Joel. In Joel the leadership of the community appears to be done by elders and priests (Joel 1:2, 13; 2:16).
Joel mentions a dispersion of Jews into the surrounding lands (Joel 3:1–2), which would match the exile.
There is no mention or condemnation of worshipping foreign gods or incorporating them into Yahweh worship. This usually was typical of post-exilic prophets and life in Judah after the exile.
Joel 3:1–2, 17 refers to the destruction of Jerusalem and Babylonian exile. This is an interpretation referencing the temple in Joel 1:9, 13; 2:17 and applies to the second temple rebuilt in 515 BC.
Joel 1:2; 2:16 references elders rather than a king as leaders of the community, which is more consistent with a post exilic period (see Ezra 10:14).
Joel appears to quote other prophets which were written before him. Joel 2:3 quotes Ezekiel 36:35. Joel 2:10 quotes Ezek 32:7. Joel 2:27–28 quotes Ezek 39:28–29. Ezekiel was a post-exilic prophet thus Joel was written after him.

Weaknesses

We would expect the enemies, if Joel was post-exilic, to be identified as Arameans, Assyrians, or Babylonians, but this is not the case (Joel 3:4, 19).
While there is no reference to kings or a monarchy, scripture tells us that elders were prominent in Judean society before the exile (2 Kings 23:1; Jer 26:17; Lam 5:12, 14).
While it might appear Joel quotes earlier prophets, it is not always clear who is quoting who.

Late Pre-Exilic. Some believe the book of Joel was written in 597–587 BC. This we call the “late pre-exilic” period. This view slides in between the two views I’ve shared above.

Strengths

There’s no mention of the northern kingdom. The repeated designation of Judah as “Israel” (Joel 2:27; 3:2, 16) assumes a time when the 10 northern tribes had been taken off to exile in 722 BC.
Joel 3:2b references a scattering of God’s people and dividing the land. This could refer to the Babylonian invasion of 597 BC when 10,000 of Judah’s finest men were deported to Babylon (see 2 Kings 24:10–16).
Joel’s reference to the temple would make sense if he wrote from 597 to 587 BC because the temple (Joel 1:9, 13; 2:17) was not destroyed until 586 BC (2 Kings 25:9).
Joel 1:15 and 2:11 would anticipate the final destruction of Jerusalem (in 586 BC as recorded in 2 Kings 25:1–21) and this would also connect “the day of the Lord” to that event.
The references in Joel 3:6 to the slave trade between the Phoenecians and Greeks (or Ionians) harmonizes well with a late pre-exilic date. See Ezek 27:13 which also references this same type of economic arrangement.
Zephaniah is a late pre-exilic minor prophet and the book of Joel shares many things in common with that book.

Weaknesses

Joel 2:18–19 Appears to reveal God’s mercy to Joel’s generation. This implies that they truly repented. This event is hard to harmonize with Judah’s final days because 2 Kings 23:26–27 indicates that Josiah’s revival was good, but not severe enough to cause God to relent.

Current Scholars on the Date of Joel. “Joel is a unified work composed under the circumstances of an invasion against the city of Jerusalem (and thus, of course, Judah) by Mesopotamian enemy forces, either Assyria or Babylonia. If this admittedly speculative assessment is correct, the words of the book would likely have been spoken on one of these occasions: the Assyrian invasion of 701 B.C., the Babylonian invasion of 598, or the Babylonian invasion of 588. There is no reason to think, therefore, that the book’s content and perspective are preexilic rather than postexilic.”[13]

“In conclusion, it is impossible to be dogmatic about the date of the writing of Joel. The language of Joel 3:2b seems to favor a postexilic date. This verse suggests that nations in the future will be judged for having continued the policies of ancient Babylon in scattering the Israelites and dividing their land. Such a view is consistent with (but not proved by) several other observations (such as the reference to Phoenician-Ionian slave trade, the form of government implied in the book, and the literary parallels with other prophets). If one accepts a postexilic date, the references to the temple necessitate a date some time after 516 B.C. However, all this must remain tentative. Understandably, conservative scholars differ on the date of Joel.”^[14]

“The dating of Joel has had as much latitude as Obadiah, ranging from the ninth to the forth centuries BC. Fortunately there are no cardinal points of orthodoxy at stake in the matter. With no indication of date in the superscription and no clear corroborative evidence in other prophetic and historical books (as with Jonah), the matter must rest in the uncertain hands of internal evidence.”[15]

Conclusion on the Date of Joel. With that said, no one can be dogmatic on the date of the book of Joel. Just like Obadiah, we might make an educated guess, but we do not know for sure when Joel recorded his words. However, most of the book can be read, studied, and preached with a goal of application without specific requirements on a date. In this way, if we keep our exposition general without a specific date and the sins general without specific sins identified in the book, then the book is applicable to today’s audiences.

THEMES

Yahweh’s Sovereignty over the Nations. God makes it clear that he controls the nations. He states that if his people are not obedient to him (over whom he has given promises) then he will use other nations to punish his nation. “Joel’s depiction of the absolute authority of Yahweh over all the peoples of the earth is among the strongest in the Old Testament.”[16] Duane Garrett reminds us that, “God is merciful, and when his people call on him, he quickly desists from punishing and heals those whom he has wounded.”[17]

Zion. In Joel we learn about both God’s love for his people and his land. (See notes on audience above for references to Zion, Jerusalem, Judah, etc.) In addition to those place names, there are also various addresses to the inhabitants of the land, the elders, and the people of the land. I’ve chosen “Zion” as the theme here instead of “Israel” or “Jerusalem” or “Judah” because “Zion” represents both the geographical location as well as God’s chosen people. As one scholar has suggested, “Zion is connected with Jerusalem but actually transcends the geographical city. It represents the conviction that Israel is the chosen nation; that Yahweh, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, is the one true God; and that the Davidic monarch is destined to rule all the nations of the world.”[18] Specifically, Zion is mentioned seven times (Joel 2:1, 15; 23; 32; 3:16, 17; 21). Jerusalem is mentioned six times (Joel 2:32; 3:1, 6, 16, 17, 20). and Judah is mentioned six times (Joel 3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19, 20). I believe that these three words are various addresses to the inhabitants, elders, and people of the land.

The Day of the LORD.[19] While there are various interpretations of “the day of the Lord” regarding its time (whether past or future) as well as its effect (limited or universal), the day of the Lord is a topic woven throughout this book. While the day of the Lord is referred to many times in the book (and one might even say that the entire book is about the day of the Lord) it is specifically discussed in Joel 1:15; 2:1, 11, 31; 3:14. As a general rule, the day of the Lord is a future time of accountability. The book of Joel provides a more graphic detail of the day of the Lord than any other prophetic book. I like how Charles Ryrie summarizes this theme, “The Day of the Lord, the major theme of this prophecy, involves God’s special intervention in the affairs of human history.”^[20]

Locusts. The book of Joel is perhaps best known for the locusts described in it. One of my earliest memories at seminary was in our Bible study methods class where Dr. Mark Bailey said some people believe the locusts described in the book of Joel are modern day helicopters. (I do not hold that interpretation, but I have always remembered it as an option!) Locusts are introduced in chapter one, used in chapter two, and their effect is seen in chapter three. In the NASB we learn about “gnawing locusts” (Joel 1:4; 2:25), “swarming locusts” (Joel 1:4 [2t]; 2:25), “creeping locusts” (Joel 1:4 [2t]; 2:25), and “stripping locusts” (Joel 1:4; 2:25). It’s important to note that locusts are a warning curse. Not the final curse by God.

MISCELANEOUS QUOTES ON JOEL. “Written in Hebrew poetry, the language of the book manifests a poet’s eyes and a scribe’s skilled pen. His imagery is artful, the product of a mind that thinks in similes and poetic images”[21]

“At present, then, virtually no consensus can be claimed for scholarship on Joel, whether as to date, or unity, or theological perspective, or even the literalness of the imagery. Noticeably missing from recent scholarship on Joel has been attention to his dependence on covenantal ideas and structures, particularly those of the Mosaic covenant sanctions.”[22]

“The Book of Joel never views disaster as only a natural event or as an accident. All things are under God’s control and, more specifically, relate to God’s larger purposes for the world and Israel. As such, Joel contributes to our understanding of the problem of theodicy. In particular, Joel enables us to see that while disasters can be very painful and are a legitimate reason for mourning, they are always within the plan of God. There is ample reason to seek for grace here. By grace we remain in a state of repentance, and by grace we discern the larger plans for good behind our temporary setbacks and hardships.”[23]

“The success of the incorporation of the book of Joel into the overall program of the Twelve (Hos. 3:4–5) is attested by the citation of the book to explain the Pentecost event and to look forward to times of refreshing when Christ returns in the Day of the LORD (Acts 2–3). Here is the ongoing significance of the book as Christian Scripture for the church. It is indispensable for our understanding of the eschatological Day of the LORD in the Twelve, the Hebrew Bible, and in Christian theology. Without such hope, it is difficult for the individual believer to make sense of his or her daily life and struggles.”[24]

“A man of implicit faith in God, Joel imparts that reliance on the sufficiency of God and his prior claim on the believer’s life in every section of the book.”^[25]

OUTLINE OF THE BOOK OF JOEL

“From Ruin to Renewal: Sermons from Joel”

“From God’s Destruction to Demonstration of Love”

I. LAMENT (Joel 1:1—2:17). One might say that Joel 1:1—2:17 describes judgement against Judah while Joel 2:18—3:21 describes judgment against the nations.

A. Destruction (1:1–20). In this first chapter we see a devastation by locusts in the past (vv. 2–14), a dreadful day of the Lord in the future (v. 15), and a drought following the locusts (vv. 16–20).[26] Another way to view this first chapter is to see the coming of locusts (vv. 2–4), call for personal penitence (vv. 5–12), communal lament (vv. 13–18), and crisis (vv. 19–20).

1. Calamity Comes (vv. 1–7). This provides awareness because of what the locusts destroyed.

2. Call to Cry Out (vv. 8–20). This shows the need for application of what the Lord demanded.

B. Day of the Lord (2:1–17). After a devastating locust plague we would expect a call to lament. Instead, Joel announces a new threat is coming that’s worse than the one they just experienced. My exposition shows, I hope, that from Joel’s standpoint chapter one is past and chapter two is future.

1. Invasion of the Land (2:1–11). In this section the theme of Joel 1:15 is more fully developed.

2. Invitation of the Lord to His People (2:12–17). In this section we see two formal appeals for repentance (vv. 12–14 and vv. 15–17). Joel 2:12–14 is an invitation to repent and Joel 2:15–17 is a summons to assemble. While the invasion of the land (vv. 1–11) was an imminent event the invitation of the Lord (vv. 12–17) is timeless. Starting in Joel 2:18 we read about God’s predictions of benefit for God’s people and subjugation of God’s people’s enemies.

As we approach Joel 2:12 it’s important to note a chiastic structure that some scholars see in the book of Joel. Here’s one I’ve adapted from Duane Garrett that I think is true to the text:

A–Punishment by Locusts (Joel 1:2-20)

B–Punishment by Northern Army (Joel 2:1-11)

C–Transition because of Repentance (Joel 2:12-19)

B’–Grace in Northern Army Destroyed (Joel 2:20)

A’–Grace in Rain Poured out to Heal the Land (Joel 2:21-27)^[27]

Another chiastic structure of this section could be:

A–Restoration of Crops and Cessation of Shame (Joel 2:19)

B–Reference to Elimination of Enemies (Joel 2:20a)

C– Praise and Exhortation (Joel 2:20b–24). This section has two cycles (vv. 20b–21b; 21c–24). The second cycle expands and repeats the three elements of the first cycle (v. 20b with v. 21c; v. 21a with v. 22; v. 21b with vv. 23–24).

B’– Reference to Elimination of Enemies (Joel 2:25)

A’– Restoration of Crops and Cessation of Shame (Joel 2:26–27)[28]

II. LORD’S RESPONSE (2:18—3:21). The first section of Joel was about Judah’s repentance and lament (1:1—2:17), now we learn about God’s response to that lament (2:18—3:21). The tone of the book of Joel dramatically changes in Joel 2:18. Thus far a lament on the locust plague, its affects, and a more severe judgment have been described. Now the Jews enjoy a “return to prosperity, receive the Holy Spirit, and see their enemies’ armies face the full fury of God.”[29] In this way, a new section begins in Joel 2:18 that focuses on the blessings God gives to his repentant people. Perhaps there is an interval between Joel 2:17 and Joel 2:18 in which the people have repented. Because of that repentance the problems of Joel 1:1—2:17 are fixed by the Lord: physical restoration (Joel 2:18–27), spiritual restoration (Joel 2: 28–32), and national restoration (Joel 3:1–21).

A. Intervention (2:18–32). Joel 1:1–20 has shown us the current crisis of Joel’s day, Joel 2:1–27 has shown us the potential conflict, and Joel 2:28—3:21 will reveal the continuing circumstances Israel will enjoy in the end-times.

1. Forgiveness from God (2:18–27). An interesting observation is while there is an occasional shift to the third person, all of Joel 2:19—3:21 is an oracle of salvation in which God is the speaker. An oracle of salvation “focuses on a change of fortune, situation, or relationship to God.[30]

2. Future for Israel (2:28–32). In the book of Joel we’ve seen the present reality of the locust plague (1:1—2:27), now we see future realities of the eschatological age (2:28—3:21). Joel 2:28–32 is quoted by Peter at Pentecost in Acts 2:16–21.[31] (However, Peter’s quotation contains a few variations from the Hebrew text and Greek text.) These five verses tell us about the Lord’s renewal of his people. Specifically, a promise of spiritual renewal (vv. 28–29), and a promise of deliverance from their enemies (vv. 30–32).

We might, perhaps, see another chiasm here in Joel with the focus of the chiasm being Joel 2:28–32:

A – Northern Army Destroyed (Joel 2:20)

B – Rain Poured Out to Heal the Land (Joel 2:21–27)

B’ – Spirit Poured Out to Heal the People (Joel 2:28–32)

A’ – Judgment on Gentile Armies (Joel 3:1–21)[32]

B. Implementation (3:1–21). We could summarize the three chapters of Joel this way: universal lamentation (ch. 1), uncompromising repentance (ch. 2), and unconditional love (ch. 3). In Joel 3:1–21 God reveals his plan for national restoration of Israel. In this national restoration, the people of Israel are regathered to Jerusalem and Israel (see Isa 11:15; Matt 24:31). I once heard the metaphor of a photographer used to describe what Joel does in Joel 2:30–32 and Joel 3:1–21. Joel uses the wide angle for the “big picture” scene in Joel 2:30–32. Then, Joel zooms in for a close look at the Day of the Lord in the future in Joel 3. We could summarize these final two sections as a judgement of the nations (vv. 1–16) and restoration for Israel (vv. 17–21). In Joel 3 we see that the nations are judged (Joel 3:1–16) and God’s people are blessed (Joel 3:17–21).

1. Penalty for the Nations (3:1–16). In this section judgment is announced (vv. 1–8) and described (vv. 9–16).[33] I like Warren Wiersbe’s organization of this section: “Nations, prepare for judgment” (vv. 1–8), “Nations, prepare for war!” (vv. 9–15), and “Nations, prepare for defeat” (v. 16).[34]

2. Peace for Israel (3:17–21). While the focus of Joel 3:1–16 was judgment of the nations, the focus now shifts in Joel 3:17–21 to a just restoration of Israel. In Joel 3:17–21 Joel looks beyond the battle. Again, I like Warren Wierbse’s summary of these five verses: A Holy City (v. 17), a restored land (vv. 18–19), a cleansed people (vv. 20–21a), and a glorious king (v. 21b).[35]

APPLICATION. The imperative mood is used forty-five times in the book of Joel, suggesting an urgency in his message. However, arriving at applications for Joel is difficult because no specific sins are mentioned (with one exception possibly being “drunkenness” in Joel 1:4). I agree with Douglas Stuart who writes, “Joel does not identify any covenant violations on the part of his nation. Nowhere does he specify exactly what Judah and Jerusalem have done to deserve the distress they now face.”[36] With that said, we need to keep our applications “general” because the text describes sin in general. Joel applies to any group of people because all people are sinful, and we don’t know what the specific sins were in the book of Joel. Here are some good applications from the book of Joel.

Develop a distaste for sin.
Discover our sin and find ways to stop it.
Deploy a plan to prevent that sin from happening in the future.
Determine to be sensitive to judgment God sends into our lives and repent of our sins.
Discern how God is getting your attention.

“From Ruin to Renewal: Sermons from Joel”

– – – – – – – – – – – –

Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

[1] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[2] Ken Hanna, From Moses to Malachi (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 434.

[3] An interesting fact that both Joel and Obadiah have names which twelve other men have in the Bible. Yet both Joel and Obadiah do not appear to be connected with those twelve men.

[4] Tremper Longman III and Raymond Dillard, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 2^nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2006), 409.

[5] Zion is the same location as “Jerusalem.” However, Zion is often the word used in poetic sections of Scripture.

[6] Duane Garret, Hosea, Joel, New American Commentary vol. 19a (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1997), 286.

[7] Dillard and Longman, Old Testament Introduction, 411–12.

[8] Dillard and Longman, Old Testament Introduction, 412.

[9] This appears to be the case on several occasions. For example, Joel 3:5 is very similar to Obadiah 17. Joel 2:27 is also very similar to Isaiah 44:8; 45:14. Joel 3:10 is the reversed language of both Isaiah 2:4 and Micah 4:3. Most likely, these prophets were using common phrases popular among Israel’s prophets.

[10] An explanation for why Joel is placed between Hosea and Amos might be because of content, not date. Longman and Dillard point out, “The position of Joel in the Hebrew Canon between the eighth-century prophecies of Hosea and Amos has been taken by many as indicative of date; however, in the LXX Joel was found after Micah. Its position between Hosea and Amos is probably the result of the similarities between Amos 1:2; 9:19 and Joel 3:16, 18 [MT 4:16, 18] and the fact that both Amos and Joel mention Tyre, the Philistines, and Edom” (Dillard and Longman, Old Testament Introduction, 413). For example, Michael Shepherd sees Joel 1:2–3 providing a “compositional seam” with Hosea 14:10. Thus, the two works are placed together based on content not date. See A Commentary on the Book of the Twelve (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2018), 116.

^[11] Robert B. Chisholm Jr., “Joel,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 1 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 1423.

[12] Longman and Dillard, Old Testament Introduction, 413.

[13] Douglas Stuart, Hosea–Jonah, Word Biblical Commentary 31 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 1988), 226.

^[14] Robert B. Chisholm Jr., “Joel,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 1 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 1410.

[15] Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago, IL: Moody, 2007),395.

[16] Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 229.

[17] Garret, Hosea, Joel, 305.

[18] Garret, Hosea, Joel, 306.

[19] “the actual topic of the Book of Joel is not locusts, soldiers, the Holy Spirit, or the last judgment. It is the day of the Lord. This is the real focus of Joel and the theme to which the book repeatedly returns. Everything that happens in Joel is a fulfillment of the day of the Lord, a term that includes both judgment and salvation.” (Garrett, Hosea, Joel, 389.

^[20] Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Ryrie Study Bible: New American Standard Bible, 1995 Update, Expanded ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1995), 1392.

[21] Bullock, Old Testament Prophetic Books, 391.

[22] Stuart, Hosea–Jonah, 235.

[23] Garret, Hosea, Joel, 308.

[24] Michael Shepherd, A Commentary on the Book of the Twelve (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2018), 147.

^[25] Richard D. Patterson, “Joel,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Daniel–Malachi (Revised Edition), ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, vol. 8 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 314.

[26] Adapted from Hanna, From Gospels to Glory, 433.

^[27] D. A. Garrett, “Joel, Book of,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, ed. Mark J. Boda and Gordon J. McConville (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2012), 452.

[28] Chisholm, “Joel,” in Bible Knowledge Commentary, 1418.

[29] Garrett, Hosea, Joel, 344.

[30] Leland Ryken, Symbols and Reality (Wooster, OH: Weaver Book Company, 2016), 38. Also see pp. 38–42.

[31] Joel 2:28–32 is quoted to some extent in nine places in the New Testament (Matt 24:29; Mark 13:24–25; Luke 21:25; Acts 2:17–21, 39; 21:29; 22:16; Rom 10:13; Tit 3:6; Rev 6:12).

[32] Garrett, “Joel, Book of,” in Dictionary of Old Testament: Prophets, 452.

[33] Chisholm, “Joel,” in Bible Knowledge Commentary, 1421–22.

[34] Warren Wiersbe, Be Amazed (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2010), 78–79.

[35] Wiersbe, Be Amazed, 80–83.

[36] Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 231.

An Introduction to Galatians

April 30, 2026 by Christopher L. Scott

The book of Galatians was a cornerstone in the Protestant Reformation. It’s known as a “short Romans” and has been called the “Magna Carta” of Christian liberty or the “Emancipation Proclamation of Christianity.” It is a “declaration of liberty and Christ.” As perhaps the first New Testament book written, it provides a glimpse into the doctrine and ministry not just of the apostle Paul, but the early church. If I was to assign a one-word description to the book of Galatians it would be “freeing” or “liberating.”

BIG IDEA. God’s grace is seen in the doctrine of justification by faith and liberty against legalism.[1]

KEY VERSES. I believe Galatians 2:16 is the key verse of this letter: “nevertheless knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the Law but through faith in Christ Jesus, even we have believed in Christ Jesus, so that we may be justified by faith in Christ and not by the works of the Law; since by the works of the Law no flesh will be justified” (NASB).[2] However, Galatians 3:16–7 and Galatians 5:1 could also be seen as key verses too.

AUTHOR. Galatians tells us that Paul was the author (Gal 1:1; 5:2; 6:11). Paul tells his original readers that they should know that he wrote this letter because the “large letters” he uses matches what they know about him (Gal 6:11).

Galatians is the least challenged among Paul’s letters for him being the author. Galatians is part of what’s called the hauptbriefe, which is a list of letters in the New Testament that almost all scholars accept as written by Paul. The book of Romans, 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philippians, and Philemon are all seen as authentic letters written by Paul (even liberal scholars admit this). Galatians has been accepted as a letter of Paul by virtually everyone. FC Baur, who was the father of the famous Tubingen School, regarded Galatians as a letter Paul wrote. Louis Berkof writes, “The authorship of the Epistle need not be subject to doubt, since both the external and the internal evidence are very strong.”^[3]

With that said, there are various elements of both “internal” and “external” evidence that supports Paul as the author. Let’s look at both.

Internal Evidence. Galatians 1 and Galatians 2 are highly biographical and harmonize well with Acts. The theology of the book of Galatians is also consistent with Paul’s sermons recorded in the book of Acts. Here’s some other internal evidence that leads us to believe Paul was the author of this letter:

-The author of Galatians is the founder of the churches and is their spiritual father (Gal 4:19–20)

-The author of Galatians has experienced illness (Gal 4:13)

-The author of Galatians has impaired eyesight that required him to write in large letters (Gal 4:15; 6:11)

-The author of Galatians has outstanding credentials that were well known (Gal 1:13–14)

-The author of Galatians has a special calling to minister to the Gentiles (Gal 1:1; 2:7)

-The author of Galatians was violent against Christianity early in his career (Gal 1:23)

-The author of Galatians has physical scars of persecution because of his belief in Christ (Gal 6:17)

External Evidence. The Bible Knowledge Commentary states, “No doubt existed in the early church that this letter was written by Paul, and no doubt should exist today.”[4]

In the second and third centuries Irenaeus (AD 140–202), Clement of Alexandria (AD 150–215), and Origen (AD 185–253) all said that Paul wrote Galatians.

Galatians is quoted or alluded to in 1 Peter, Epistle of Barnabas (likely dated to AD 70–132), 1 Clement (AD 70–96), Polycarp’s letter to the Philippians (Polycarp lived AD 69–155), Justin Martyr (AD 100–165), Irenaeus (AD 140–202), Clement of Alexandria (AD 150–215), and Origin (AD 185–253).[5]

I love this quote from Timothy George, “Jerome once said that when he read the letters of the apostle Paul he could hear thunder. Nowhere in the Pauline corpus is such stormy dissonance more evident than in the Epistle to the Galatians.”^[6]

AUDIENCE. Paul was writing to believers in “South Galatia” within Asia Minor. It was a “region” of people. Paul had planted the church there in Acts 13—14, then wrote this letter back to them between his first and second missionary journeys. Paul addresses his audience in Galatians 1:2, “and all the brethren who are with me, to the churches of Galatia.” With that said, the audience of this letter likely were Gentile readers.

When reading the book of Galatians it’s clear that there has been a disruption in the church because of the teaching of the Judaizers. These Judaizers were enslaving the people in legalism to the Law of Moses. However, the audience of the letter might change slightly depending on the “destination” of this letter. We encounter a problem because the word “Galatia” had two distinct meanings in the New Testament era.

As we look at the “north” and “south” audiences, it’s important to note that Paul’s ministry took him to both regions at different times which resulted in different outcomes. The two different locations does not necessarily affect the topic of Paul’s writing, but they do change the time of his writing and the place of the Jew-Gentile controversy as described in Acts 15.

“North” Ethnic (People) Geographical Region. If Paul uses “Galatia” for the northern region then he used the word to refer to the “people” that lived there. This is called the “ethnic geographical region” label. If this destination is correct, Paul would have written the letter from Corinth during his third missionary journey in approximately AD 55 or AD 56. This is commonly called the “North Galatian Theory.” If this is true, then the visit described in Galatians 2 corresponds to Acts 15.

The “Celtic” people lived in the “north” region. These Celtic tribes moved there from ancient Gaul. They attacked and nearly destroyed Rome in 390 BC. They called it the region of “Galatia” from the word “Gaul.” (Makes sense, right?) These people were located in the mountains in the north. It had no major cities and no Jewish population (if any, it was very small). According to Acts, Paul did not visit this region until the beginning of his second missionary journey (Acts 16). On this visit, they only traveled through Phrygia and Galatia (Acts 16:5).

This “north” view was the traditional view of the church for many centuries, but is less popular today.

“South” Political Region. In 189 BC the Gauls were conquered and the area became a province of Rome. This process of conquest and assimilation was completed in 25 BC because Augustus declared the region an official Roman province and called it “Galatia.” Thus, it was the “province” of Galatia, not just the people. This “province” extended to the south and incorporated parts of Lycaonia, Phrygia, and Pisidia. This was the location of Paul’s first missionary trip to the Gentiles that’s described in Acts 13—14 which occurred in AD 47–49. It’s important to note that Paul’s first and second missionary journeys were separated by three years as one was before the Jerusalem council (Acts 15) and the other was after the Jerusalem council.

If we were to focus on the “political” meaning of the word “Galatia” we could also include the cities of Lystra, Derbe, and Iconium. Paul had visited these cities on his first missionary journey. If this view is correct, then the Jerusalem visit recorded in Galatians 2 is not the same Jerusalem visit recorded in Acts 15. Instead, Galatians 2 records an earlier visit Paul made to Jerusalem (either Acts 9:26 or Acts 11:30) before we read what occurred in Acts 15.

Sir William Ramsey did extensive archaeological work that led to this view. This “south” view is the predominant view today among evangelical protestant scholars.

DATE. Galatians was likely written during the three years between Paul’s first and second missionary journeys. Paul likely wrote Galatians from the city of Antioch (see Acts 14:28) before the Jerusalem council (Acts 15), but after Paul’s visit to Jerusalem in AD 46–48 (Acts 11:30). The date of Galatians is a complex topic. Let’s examine the different views below.

An Introduction to the Proposed Dates of Galatians. Three possible dates for the writing of Galatians are proposed by G. W. Hansen, “The dating of Galatians is a notorious and for some a fascinating historical puzzle. But the outcome of the protracted debate about the date has little if any effect on the interpretation of the major themes of the letter” One date is A.D. 53-57 (if letter was written after the second missionary journey of Acts 18:22). A second option is A.D. 49 (if letter was written immediately after the first missionary journey but before Jerusalem Conference). A third option is A.D. 50-57 (if Gal 2:1-10 = Acts 15:1-20, after the Jerusalem conference).”[7]

I have several pages of hand-written notes on the date of Paul’s letter to the Galatians. Here’s my best attempt to summarize the different views on the date of this letter. Earlier in this work I’ve listed the “north” and “south” views briefly based on the audience intended for the letter. Here I will attempt to list the support for and weaknesses of each view. I hope this is helpful for you.

South Galatia “Political Province” View: AD 49.[8]

Support

A trip traveling to and establishing churches in south Galatia matches Paul’s practice of strategically traveling to influential and well populated cities that had significant Jewish populations. The north Galatia area was smaller, more obscure, and had less Jews.
The book of Galatians contains descriptive details that match details of Paul’s first missionary journey recorded in Acts 13—14 throughout Galatia. First, reception of Paul as an “angel of God” might match the attempted worship of Paul and Barnabas at Lyionian cities of Lystra and Derbe (Acts 14:6–18). Second, the physical mark of suffering (Gal 6:17) might reference the scars Paul received by being stoned (Acts 14:19–20).
Galatians 2:1–10 addresses an issue which the council of Jerusalem in Acts 15 would have solved. The logical conclusion is that Acts 15 was after Galatians 2. Additionally, Galatians 2 indicates a private conversation, while Acts 15 was a public assembly.
Galatians 2:1 says Paul went “again” to Jerusalem, which suggests this was at least Paul’s second visit. That second (or third) visit could be after the first (or second) visit as described in Acts 11:30. Acts also records a visit in Acts 9:26 which could have been the first.
Barnabas is mentioned three times in Galatians (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) in a way that suggests the audience was familiar with him. This could only be true if Paul had went to the Galatians on his first missionary journey because Paul and Barnabas had split up before the second missionary journey began.
If Paul was suffering from an illness in Galatia (Gal 4:13) and was there to recover, then the “North Galatia” theory is unlikely. North Galatia was far north, it was off the beaten path, and it was a difficult place to travel.
It is possible, that Paul never went to the northern Galatian region. If Acts 16:6 and Acts 18:23 are referring to a political region instead of a geographical region, then Paul (according to Acts) never went to North Galatia.
The word “Galatians” was the only word that would describe the people in Antioch, Lystra, Iconium, and Derbe.

Weaknesses

The main weakness of this view is that it does not have church history behind it. For most of church history, the “north Galatia” view was prominent. This is a personal struggle for me and must not be overlooked. According to Donald Guthrie, “Since the nineteenth century many scholars have advocated this view, but it was Sir William Ramsay who popularized it and gave it its most cogent expression.”^[9]

North Galatia “Ethnic Geographical Region” View: AD 55–56.[10]

Support and Strengths

This is perhaps the most natural meaning of “Galatia” or “Galatians” as used in Galatians 1:2 and Galatians 3:1. This was the geographical region in north Asia Minor. The people that lived there used those terms.
Luke tends to describe places in Acts according to geographical region instead of political province. Examples of this are Pamphylia (Acts 13:13), Pisidia (Acts 13:14), and Lycaonia (Acts 14:6) which are geographical terms. Thus, it’s likely that Paul used “Phrygian and Galatian region” in Acts 16:16 as a geographical region too.
If Paul visited the geographical districts of “north” Galatia in Acts 16:6 and Acts 18:23, then he went there twice and possibly established churches there, which he could write letters to.
The natural reading of Galatians 2:1–10 is to refer to Acts 15.
No other view existed until Sir William Ramsay introduced his “south” Galatia view in the nineteenth century.

Weaknesses

While no other view was held in the church until the nineteenth century under Sir William Ramsay, it is not surprising that patristic, medieval, and reformation commentaries assumed Paul wrote his letter to the Northern region because southern Galatia was reduced in size and significance by the Roman government in AD 74, 137, and 197.

ACCEPTANCE INTO THE CANON. The book of Galatians was accepted into the Canon very early in the history of the Christian church. There are references to it (as I’ve shown above) in Barnabas, 1 Clement, Polycarp, and Justin Martyr. There was no dispute about the book of Galatians’ genuineness in early times.

The theologian Louis Berkof writes, “There has never been any serious doubt respecting the canonicity of this Epistle. It was received as authoritative in all sections of the Church from the very earliest times. There are allusions to its language in the apostolic fathers, Clement of Rome, Polycarp and Ignatius. Justin Martyr, Melito and Athanagoras seem to have known it; and some of the heretics, especially the Ophites, used it extensively. It is found in Marcions canon, is named in the Muratorian Fragment, and the Syriac and old Latin versions contain it. From the end of the second century the quotations multiply and increase in directness and definiteness.”^[11]

THE “JUDAIZERS” IN GALATIANS. The people whom Paul identifies as his opponents and enemies in this letter probably came from Jerusalem. They likely were Jews who claimed to be Christians and wanted Christians to submit to the authority of the Mosaic Law.

Often I called these “Judaizers” as the “Legalizers” when preaching to a congregation. In Galatians 6:12–13 Paul gives a good commentary on these people. He says that what the Legalizers (Judaizers) were doing describes the human effort of worldly people. The Legalizers believed they were saved through their merit instead of through God’s mercy.

According to Paul, the Legalizers were only interested in pleasing men. Paul writes that they wanted “to make a good showing in the flesh” (Gal 6:12a). That good impression came from getting the Galatians circumcised (Gal 6:12b).

According to Paul, the Legalizers were afraid of persecution. The passage continues, “so that they will not be persecuted for the cross of Christ” (Gal 6:12c). To avoid persecution seems a little odd. But if we think in their time, requiring people to be circumcised prevented persecution from two groups of people: Jews and Romans. Having everyone get circumcised pleased the Jews because it meant that the people weren’t joining a competing faith or a new faith. Instead they were submitting to the old established religion of the times. Faith in Christ for salvation that included circumcision appeased the rules, regulations, and restrictions of the rabbis of the established Jewish system of that time.[12] The Romans had accepted Judaism as a legal religion in the Empire. Any Gentile that was circumcised would fall under the category of Judaism and wouldn’t experience persecution. To reject circumcision and take the name of a “Christian” would mean you weren’t protected under the legal umbrella of Judaism in Roman law. So the Legalizers did have a valid point: to get circumcised greatly reduced the chance of persecution.[13]

According to Paul, the Legalizers wanted to boast because of the number of converts they had. Paul writes, “they desire to have you circumcised so that they may boast in your flesh” (Gal 6:13c). The Legalizers wanted to claim the Galatians as their own. “They only want you to be circumcised so they can boast of their success in recruiting you to their side” (The Message). The Legalizers wanted to point to the Galatians as their “catch” much like a bass angler or big game hunter that wants to display the big fish or the big elk. For the Legalizers their big catch was this group of Galatian believers that Paul had evangelized, but now they were getting “caught” up in their teaching about the Law and how they needed to follow the Law.

According to Paul, the Legalizers had built their teachings around four key beliefs. Paul was surprised to learn that the Galatians had deserted his teachings for a false gospel (Gal 1:6). Based on what we read in Galatians (not cultural speculation), I think we can identify four key teachings of the Judaizers. One, that righteousness comes through obedience to the Law (Gal 2:15-21), two that the Holy Spirit came through works of the Law (Gal 3:1-3), three that righteousness comes through following the Jewish calendar’s festivals and events (Gal 4:8-11) such as Passover, Pentecost, Purim, etc., four that favor comes from God through circumcision (Gal 5:2-6; 6:12-13).

Conclusion about Judaizers. This is a long but important quote from FF Bruce,“Galatians was plainly written to converts of Paul’s who were in imminent danger of adulterating the gospel of Christian freedom which he had taught them with elements of Jewish legalism. Among these elements circumcision took a chief place; they also included the observance of the Jewish calendar (Gal. 4:10) and possibly Jewish food-laws. The ‘churches of Galatia’ had evidently been visited by Judaizers who cast doubt on Paul’s apostolic status and insisted that, in addition to the faith in Christ which he inculcated, it was necessary to be circumcised and to conform in other respects to the Jewish law in order to attain salvation. When news of this reached Paul he wrote this letter in white-hot urgency, denouncing this teaching which mingled grace and law as a different gospel from that which he had preached to them in Christ’s name—in fact, no gospel at all—and entreating his readers to stand fast in their new-found liberty and not place their necks again under a yoke of bondage.”^[14]

THEMES. I believe there are four themes woven throughout this letter. Each of the themes relates to a “correction” Paul is trying to make with this audience.

Correcting the Misunderstanding of Paul’s Life. Paul wanted the Galatians to know about his past life as a Jew but also how he prepared for ministry. Based on my study I believe there are ten different “biographical sections” in Galatians that often begin with the first-person personal pronoun “I” (Gal 1:1, 10, 13–14, 16–19, 21–24; 2:1–2, 7; 4:12–14; 5:11; 6:17).[15] Timothy George comments, “Galatians contains one of the most important autobiographical reflections anywhere in the writings of Paul.”^[16]

Correcting the False Gospel. Paul had taught the Galatians the correct gospel, but they had been led astray by Judaizers. The word “gospel” is used ten times in Galatians (Gal 1:6, 7, 8, 9, 11; 2:2, 5, 7, 14; 4:13).

Correcting the False Interpretation of the Law. Paul validates the purpose of the Law and how it has been fulfilled through Christ. The word “Law” is used twenty-nine times in Galatians (Gal 2:16 [2t], 19 [2t], 21; 3:2, 5, 10 [2t], 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 21 [3t], 23. 24; 4:4, 5, 21 [2t]; 5:3, 4, 14, 18; 6:13).

Correcting the Significance of Jesus’s Death. If the Law had been fulfilled, it was because of Jesus’s perfect substitution. In Paul’s letter he tells us that Jesus Christ gave himself for our sins (Gal 1:4a), Jesus Christ has rescued us from this world (Gal 1:4b), and that was a gift from God (Gal 1:4c).

OUTLINES OF GALATIANS

I. FOLLOWING GOD’S LAW (Gal 1—3)

A. Paul’s Past in Religion (Gal 1).

1. Substance of the Gospel (vv. 1-10). These ten verses are Paul’s groundwork for this letter and most of what he will write in the New Testament. In this section we learn about how the gospel is described and defended (vv. 4, 6) and we learn about the gospel defectors (vv. 6–9).

Greetings (vv. 1-5)

Good News (vv. 6-9)

Goal (v. 10)

2. Source of the Gospel (vv. 11-24). The Gospel message, according to Paul, was not according to man (v. 11), was not received from man (v. 12a), was not taught to him (v. 12b), but it was revealed to him by Jesus Christ (v. 12c).

From Jesus (vv. 11-12)

From Judaism (vv. 13-14)

From Jehovah God (vv. 15-17)

From Jerusalem (vv. 18-20)

From Judah (vv. 21-24)

B. Paul’s Preparation for Ministry (Gal 2)

1. Meeting with Church Leaders (vv 1-10)

Agreement from Leaders (vv. 1-3)

Disagreement from False Brothers (vv. 4-5)

Encouragement from Leaders (vv. 6-10)

2. Meeting with the Church Leader (vv. 11-21)

Peter’s Conforming (vv. 11-13)

Peter’s Confrontation (vv. 14-16)

Peter’s Correction (vv. 17-21)

C. Paul’s Preaching on Religion and Faith (Gal 3).[17] While Galatians 1—2 describes the ministry of Paul, Galatians 3—4 describes the ministry of the Law. Galatians 1—2 have focused on Paul and the Law, now we will read about Christ and the Holy Spirit in Galatians 3—4.

1. Abraham’s Faith: Saved Because of Faith (vv. 1-9). Notice the various questions Paul asks after he assesses the situation (v. 1): The Spirit Question (v. 2) – “How did you receive the Holy Spirit?” The Sanctification Question (v. 3) – “How are you growing in your Christian walk?” The Suffering Question (v. 4) – “Did you suffer in vain?” The Supernatural Question (v. 5) – “How did God perform miracles in and among you?”

2. Abraham’s Seed: Saved Because of One Man/Father (vv. 10-18)

3. Abraham’s Descendants: Saved Because of One Son (vv. 19-29)

II. FOLLOWING GOD’S SON AND SPIRIT (Gal 4—6)

A. Christ’s Children (Gal 4).

1. At One Time (4:1-11)

Slaves to this World (vv. 1-3)

Slaves Freed by the Son (vv. 4-7)

Slaves to Other gods (vv. 8-11)

2. At Paul’s Time with Them (4:12-20)

Free from the Law (vv. 12-13)

Free to Do What is Right (vv. 14-16)

Free from False Teachers (vv. 17-20)

3. At Abraham’s Time (4:21-31)

Abraham’s Two Sons (vv. 21-23)

Abraham’s Two Women (vv. 24-27)

Abraham’s Two Descendants (vv. 28-31)

B. Christ’s Freedom and the Holy Spirit’s Power (Gal 5). We could also call this chapter “Christ’s Fruit.” While Galatians 1—2 describes the ministry of Paul and Galatians 3—4 describes the ministry of the Law, now in Galatians 5—6 we read about the ministry of Christ. Galatians 1—2 have focused on Paul and the Law, Galatians 3—4 have focused on Christ and the Holy Spirit, now Galatians 5—6 focuses on Christians and the church. I like the one-word descriptions by Warren Wiersbe for Galatians as “Personal” (grace and the gospel in chapters 1—2), “Doctrinal” (grace and the Law in chapters 3—4), and “Practical” (grace and the Christian life in chapters 5—6).

1. Old vs. New (5:1-6)

Through Christ (v. 1)

Through Circumcision (vv. 2-4)

Through the Spirit (vv. 5-6)

2. Past vs. Present (5:7-15)

Their Struggle (vv. 7-10)

Paul’s Striving (vv. 11-12)

Our Goal/Target (vv. 13-15)

3. Flesh vs. Spirit (5:16-26)

The Goal (vv. 16-18)

The Deeds of the Flesh (vv. 19-21)

The Duty of the Spirit (vv. 22-24)

The Way We Live (vv. 25-26)

C. Christ’s Harvest (Gal 6)

1. Giving Help to Fallen Brothers (6:1-5)

Be Gentle (v. 1)

Be Realistic (vv. 2-3)

Be Focused (vv. 4-5)

2. Giving Help to Believers (6:6-10)

Giving to Teachers of the Word (v. 6)

Sowing Good (vv. 7-9)

Giving to Those in the Household (v. 10)

3. Giving Help to the Gospel (6:11-18)

Personal Appeal (v. 11)

Position of the Gospel (vv. 12-16)

Passion for Christ (vv. 17-18)

A couple other simple ways to outline the book would be:

I. THE MINISTRY OF PAUL (Gal 1—2)

II. THE MINISTRY OF THE LAW (Gal 3—4)

III. THE MINISTRY OF CHRIST (Gal 5—6)

I. PAUL AND THE LAW (Gal 1—2)

II. CHRIST AND THE HOLY SPIRIT (Gal 3—4)

III. CHRISTIANS AND THE CHURCH (Gal 5—6)

I. PERSONAL (Gal 1—2). In these two chapters we see lots of the word “I”, “me”, and “my”. Those words described Paul’s transition from following the Law to following the Liberty provided in Christ.

II. DOCTRINAL (Gal 3—4). In these two chapters we see lots of Old Testament quotations, references, and allusions that described how saints used to live under the Law, but now were saved by their faith in Christ.

III. APPLICATIONAL (Gal 5—6). In these two chapters we see lots of verbs, commands, and words like “you” that describe what we’re supposed to do with that freedom.

APPLICATIONS

Let go of legalism. It’s human nature to want to “work for things.” And that’s what the Galatians were starting to think. Paul’s message to them was to let go of legalism and accept God’s grace. We as Christians need to be cautious of false teachers that overly emphasize the Law and festivals of the Old Testament more than the free gift of grace and salvation of the New Testament. It should not surprise us, that even in our evangelical churches, that legalistic people sneak in and try to impose their will on us (see Gal 2:3–5 where false brethren were brought in to spy out the true liberty that Christians have [v. 4b] and to put the true Christians in bondage under the Law [v. 4c]). Pastor Charles Swindoll writes, “The Christian life is not about working as hard as we can to live right; it’s about allowing Christ Himself to live out His life through us.”[18] And that’s based on faith. One commentary asserts, “The church of Jesus Christ needs the message of Galatians now as much as perhaps any time in its history. Alternative gospels abound within the realm of Christendom. Western Christianity in particular is at times shallow and individualistic, cast in terms that are more anthropocentric, existential, and serendipitous than being explained biblically in terms of self-denial and taking up one’s cross.”^[19]
Let God’s Holy Spirit guide your life. The Law no longer guides our lives. Now we follow God’s Son and the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is mentioned fifteen times in this short six-chapter book. We bear fruit for God because the Holy Spirit lives in us and because the Holy Spirit leads us. Robert Rapa writes, “The simplicity of the truth of the person, word, and work of Jesus Christ is today under siege in various places and in diverse ways. The premise of Galatians—salvation by the grace of God through faith in Jesus Christ—must be reclaimed as the church’s indispensable bedrock on which to stand and to build.”^[20]

SOME OF MY FAVORITE QUOTES ON GALATIANS

Max Lucado, “The reason the letter of Galatians is in your Bible is because Paul couldn’t stomach diluted grace.”[21]

Donald Campbell, “Galatians, though one of Paul’s shorter epistles, is highly esteemed as one of his greatest and most influential.”^[22]

Robert Rapa, “The book of Galatians stands out in Christian history—and thus in the history of the Western world—as of major importance. This little book (149 verses) helped to launch the Protestant Reformation, as in it was rediscovered by Martin Luther and others the doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone. As a result of its message and its influence, it has been called “the Magna Carta of Christian Liberty,” and this expression sums up well the theme of the book.”^[23]

Timothy George, “During the Protestant Reformation, Galatians and Romans became the bedrock of a Pauline renaissance as Luther, Calvin, and other Reformers rallied around the doctrine of justification by faith over against a compromised theology of grace in the prevailing Roman Catholic systems of the day.”^[24]

Louis Berkof, “The purpose of the author in writing this Epistle was, of course, twofold. In order that his words might be effective, it was necessary, first of all, that he should defend his apostolic authority by proving that God had called him and had imparted the truth of the gospel to him by means of a direct revelation. And in the second place it was incumbent on him that he should expose the Judaeistic error by which they were led astray, and should defend the doctrine of justification by faith.”^[25]

Sermon Series from Galatians: “Gospel Groundwork”

Articles from Galatians

[1] Another big idea might be: Salvation is available to every person only by faith in Jesus Christ without obedience to the Law.

[2] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

^[3] L Berkhof, New Testament Introduction (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans-Sevensma Co., 1915), 178.

[4] Donald K. Campbell, “Galatians” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. by J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 187.

[5] This list is adapted from Daniel Wallace, “9. Galatians: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” Bible.org, June 27, 2004, https://bible.org/seriespage/galatians-introduction-argument-and-outline.

^[6] Timothy George, Galatians, vol. 30, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1994), 21.

[7] G. W. Hansen, “Letter to the Galatians,” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, edited by Gerald Hawthrorne, Ralph Martin, Daniel Reid (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 328-29.

[8] Much of the material in this section is adapted from Daniel Wallace, “9. Galatians: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” Bible.org, June 27, 2004, https://bible.org/seriespage/galatians-introduction-argument-and-outline. Also see Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, rev. ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1996), 466-72; D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 458–61.

^[9] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 468.

[10] Much of the material in this section is adapted from Wallace, “Galatians: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,”; Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 466-72; Carson and Moo, New Testament Introduction, 458–61.

^[11] Berkhof, New Testament Introduction, 187.

[12] Charles Swindoll Insights on Galatians, Ephesians, Swindoll’s Living Insights New Testament Commentary, vol. 8 (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2015), 144.

[13] Swindoll Insights on Galatians, Ephesians, 144.

^[14] F. F. Bruce, “Galatians, Epistle to” in New Bible Dictionary (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 392–393.

[15] Galatians 1 and 2 are largely biographical. Galatians 1:1 tells us that Paul was a true apostle appointed by God, not man. “Paul, an apostle (not sent from men nor through the agency of man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father, who raised Him from the dead),” (Gal 1:1). Apparently there were people in Galatia teaching that Paul was not a true apostle/messenger of the Gospel because his authority was appointed by men. And because he was getting that information from men, it was not correct. Paul makes it clear he says what he says and does what he does not to earn the approval of men, but to please God (Gal 1:10).

^[16] George, Galatians, NAC, 23.

[17] Perhaps another way to outline this section: 1. The Law and Faith in Christ (3:1-14): a) Belief Brings the Holy Spirit (1-5), b) Belief Gives Righteousness (6-9), c) Belief Removes the Curse (10-14). 2. The Law and God’s Promise to Abraham (3:15-29): a) What Promise Was Given to Abraham (15-18), b) Why the Law Was Given (19-23), c) Who God’s People Are (24-29).

[18] Swindoll Insights on Galatians, Ephesians, 54.

^[19] Robert K. Rapa, “Galatians,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Romans–Galatians (Revised Edition), ed. Tremper Longman III & Garland, David E., vol. 11 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 550.

^[20] Rapa, “Galatians,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Romans–Galatians, 550.

[21] Max Lucado, In the Grip of Grace (Dallas, TX: Word Publishing, 1996), 136.

^[22] Campbell, “Galatians,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 587.

^[23] Rapa, “Galatians,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Romans–Galatians, 549.

^[24] George, Galatians, NAC, 68.

^[25] Berkhof, New Testament Introduction, 185–186.

An Introduction to Habakkuk

April 18, 2026 by Christopher L. Scott

“Questioning”

While most Old Testament prophets declared God’s message to the people, in the book of Habakkuk the people—through Habakkuk—declare their message to God. While most Old Testament prophets preached about divine judgment, Habakkuk pleaded for divine judgment. While most Old Testament prophets shared God’s concerns with Israel or Judah, Habakkuk shared Judah’s concerns with God. In this way the book of Habakkuk contains some of the most foundational questions in life. The book of Habakkuk represents the godly voice of those in Judah that had questions of God. The book of Habakkuk is not an oracle to Judah, but instead is a dialogue between the prophet and God.

BIG IDEA. A mature faith trusts and submits to the Lord’s plans even when you can’t see or understand the Lord’s plans.

KEY VERSE. “Your eyes are too pure to approve evil, and You can not look on wickedness with favor. Why do You look with favor on those who deal treacherously? Why are You silent when the wicked swallow up those more righteous than they?” (Hab 1:13, NASB)[1]

AUTHOR. The name Habakkuk only shows up two times in the entire Bible (Hab 1:1; 3:1).[2] We know nothing about Habakkuk’s family or his heritage. We don’t get his father’s name, his hometown, nor are we told about the kings in power when he spoke. (Those details are often part of what’s called a superscription that is common in the Old Testament prophetic books.)

Habakkuk likely was an ordained priest. He appears well educated, deeply sensitive to Scripture, and his literary style suggests Habakkuk was as much of a poet as a prophet.[3] Musical notes in Habakkuk 3:19 suggests he was part of the temple’s liturgical singing. His aptitude for music is clear.

In the apocryphal section of Daniel (vv. 33-39) called “Bel and the Dragon,” Jewish tradition says Habakkuk was delivering food to workers in the field when an angel took him back to Babylon and Habakkuk offered food to Daniel in the lions den.[4] That story is probably more legendary than historical.

Habakkuk likely lived in Judah in 607–604 BC under king Jehoiakim (Jer 22:15–17; 2 Kings 23:34—24:5) in the final dark days of the southern nation of Judah.

DATE. The heading of the book of Habakkuk—unlike other prophets—provides no chronological or historical information that would reveal to us the date of the book.

Pre-exilic Date. I take the date of 607 BC. At that time sin was ruling in the land of Judah, rulers were not administering justice to those who needed it, corruption and lawlessness were descriptive of their era, and it was bad.

But how bad was it? Habakkuk lived under King Jehoiakim of Judah. Jehoiakim ruled in Judah 609-605 BC under Egypt’s oversight and 605-601 BC under Babylon’s oversight. During his rule Jehoiakim killed innocent people who opposed him, refused to pay poor laborers (2 Kings 23:35-37; Jer 22:13-19), he killed Uriah the prophet for prophesying that Jerusalem would fall (Jer 26:20-23), and he burned the prophet Jeremiah’s hand-written prophecy (Jer 36). Furthermore, prophets and priests were known to commit adultery and abuse their authority under his rulership (Jer 23:1-2, 9-11).[5]

Here’s a brief timeline. In 607 BC Habakkuk writes. In 605 BC Babylon comes to Judah and Daniel is taken into exile in Babylon. In 597 BC Babylon comes again and Ezekiel is taken into exile in Babylon. In 586 BC Babylon finishes what they started by completely destroying the city of Jerusalem.

Post-exilic Date. C. Hassell Bullock writes, “One of the most radical proposals was put forth by Bernard Duhm, who amended the term Kasdim (Chaldeans) to Kittim (Greeks) and dated the book about 322 BC.”[6] Bullock continues, “C. C. Torrey followed that line of reasoning and advocated that the book was a meditation on the conquests of Alexander the Great. He dated it between 334 and 331.”[7]

THEMES. Two themes appear to be prominent in this book.

The Lord. Both of Habakkuk’s questions begin with, “O Lord” (Hab 1:2, 12), the “Lord” answers (Hab 2:2, 13, 14, 16, 20), then Habakkuk praises the “Lord” (Hab 3:2 [two times], 8, 18, 19). The name of God, “Lord,”is mentioned eleven times in the book of Habakkuk. The NASB translation uses “Lord” in small caps and is translation of YHWH[8] (transliterated as Yahweh).[9] Some people believe it comes from the verb, “to be” in Hebrew. YHWHis called the “Tetragrammaton” (which means four letters) and was the covenant name of God from Exodus 3:14 where God reveals to Moses, “I AM WHO I AM.” This indicated God’s covenant faithfulness and should evoke confidence.[10]

The Chaldeans. The answer to Habakkuk’s questions is that God will use the Babylonians to execute God’s plan (Hab 1:5–11, 15–17). In Habakkuk 1:6a we read, “For behold, I am raising up the Chaldeans” (Hab 1:6a). The Hebrew word, kasdim, is translated as “Chaldeans” in the NASB but this group of people is better known by another name: Babylonians. The Babylonians were a tribe within the Assyrian Empire that rose up and overtook the Assyrian Empire. Nabopolassar rose to power in 625 BC and Nebuchadnezzar inherited the powerful kingdom in 605 BC.[11] This was surprising for two reasons. One, that a small group within the nation of Assyria could rise up and overtake Assyria. Two, that God would allow a foreign nation which was wicked and evil to punish the nation of Judah. The prophets Isaiah (39:5–7) and Micah (4:10) could see the transition from Assyrian to Babylonian dominance. Many people could see the Babylonian rise to power and significance in the ancient Near East.

LITERARY DESIGN AND GENRE.

Oracle. Habakkuk 1:1 reveals this is an “oracle.” The word, “oracle” (מַשָּׂא)[12] literally means “burden” and is “a pronouncement or message from God to people.”[13] In the Old Testament there are three types of oracles:Judgement, blessing, and salvation.[14] The book of Habakkuk is an oracle of judgement against the evil of the nation of Judah, its kings, its people, and its rulers.

Woe. In Habakkuk 2 we see the Hebrew word, hoy used as “woe” in Habakkuk 2:6, 9, 12, 15, 19. These are woe oracles which announce the failure and future doom of a nation. Amos 6:1–7 is a good example of a woe oracle against Israel. Technically, Habakkuk 2:6–19 is an oracle of judgement, but it goes a little farther. We would classify this as “taunt.” A taunt “is an utterance that mocks or jeers the opponent.”[15] It’s a put down. It’s trash talk. There’s an element of not just “what bad will happen” but also a personal attack on the nation and its leaders. God “rubs it in” in a certain way to make it hurt, to make it sting, and to make it personal.[16]

Theodicy. The book of Habakkuk is often called a “theodicy.” A theodicy is an “attempt to defend God’s omnipotence and goodness in the face of the problem of evil in the world.”[17] The book of Habakkuk tells the story of a man, Habakkuk, asking God about the evil he sees occurring in his country and in the neighboring nations. It also reveals the struggles that Habakkuk has with what he sees and what he believes God should be doing.

Unique. The book of Habakkuk is unique among the prophets in the Old Testament. Most Old Testament prophets brought God’s messages to the people, Habakkuk brings the people’s questions to God. While most prophets in the Old Testament preached about divine judgment, Habakkuk pleaded for divine judgment. While most prophets of the Old Testament shared God’s concerns with Judah, Habakkuk shares Judah’s concerns with God. Thomas Constable writes, “Habakkuk is unusual among the prophetical books in that it tells a story. In this it is similar to Jonah, which is also the record of a prophet’s experience. Jonah gives the account of a prophet’s failure to sympathize with God. Habakkuk gives the account of a prophet’s failure to understand God. Jonah deals with a problem posed by Nineva, and Habakkuk deals with a problem posed by Babylon. Habakkuk, like Jonah, also records one major event in the life of the prophet. Most of the other prophetic books record the messages and activities of a prophet over an extended period of years. Habakkuk does contain prophecies, so it does like the other prophetic books in this respect.”[18]

UNITY OF THE BOOK. Some liberal scholars over the years have challenged the unity of the book of Habakkuk. Specifically, they’ve viewed chapter three as a post-exilic addition because of the different literary features and because a commentary on Habakkuk found in the Dead Sea Schools does not contain Habakkuk 3 (1QpHab is the scroll).[19] However, the early textual witnesses from many different languages and text-types all have Habakkuk 3 in them. It seems odd to me that the Qumran commentary on Habakkuk does not have a commentary on Habakkuk 3. “Some argue that Habakkuk 3 was added much later, as it is missing from DSS commentary (1QpHab). The majority think that it is part of the original mt tradition (Andersen, 259–60), confirmed in the second-century Minor Prophet scroll found at Wadi Murabbaʿat and present in the early lxx versions and in the Naḥal Ḥeber first-century Greek manuscript. The more archaic language of the chapter is in keeping with the liturgy of theophanic visions (Sweeney, 1:479; Roberts, 148–58). It is also a fitting response after the prophet’s questions and God’s revelation in the first two chapters (Hiebert 1986, 129–49).”[20]

OUTLINE

I. HABAKKUK’S PROBLEMS (Hab 1:1—2:1).

A. Introduction (Hab 1:1). We could label this verse as Habakkuk’s call.

B. Habakkuk’s First Question (Hab 1:2–4). In these verses we read about God’s perceived inactivity. Habakkuk essentially asks God, “How long will evil continue and when will you stop it?” Habakkuk shares his cry (vv. 2–3) and his concern (v. 4).

C. God’s First Answer (Hab 1:5–11). God essentially responds: “I’m going to stop it, I know what’s going on, and you’ll be surprised how.” God tells Habakkuk that he will use the ungodly people of Babylon to purify his people (Judah) who are acting ungodly. In this section we see God’s intention of discipline (v. 5), God’s instrument of discipline (vv. 6–10), and God’s implementation of discipline (v. 11).

1. Pay Attention to This (v. 5)

2. The Description of the Chaldeans (vv. 6–7)

3. The Destruction of the Chaldeans (vv. 8–11)

D. Habakkuk’s Second Question (Hab 1:12—2:1). In these verses we read about God’s perceivedinconsistency. Habakkuk essentially asks God: “Why use greater sinners against less sinners?” Habakkuk asks why God would use the more serious sinners (Babylonians) to punish the less serious sinners (Judah). In this section we read a declaration about God (1:12–13), a description of the Babylonians (1:14–17), and a determination to wait (2:1).

1. Holiness of God (vv. 12–13)

2. Haughtiness of the Chaldeans (vv. 14–17)

3. Habakkuk Waiting (Hab 2:1)

II. HABAKKUK’S PATIENCE (Hab 2:2–20). This is God’s second answer. In these verses God essentially says: “I have a plan for the future, a message for the faithful, and punishment planned for the Babylonians.” In this section we read about God’s plans for the future (vv. 2–3), God’s plans for the righteous (vv. 4–5), and God’s plans for the wicked (vv. 6–20).

A. God’s Answer (vv. 2–3)

B. Righteous Living by Faith (vv. 4–5). The Talmud (Makkot 23b) records a Rabbi that said, “Moses gave Israel 613 commandments, David reduced them to 10, Isaiah to 2, but Habakkuk to one: the righteous shall live by faith.”

C. Enemies of Babylon and Response to Those Enemies (vv. 6–11)

D. Anger Building Against the Babylonians (vv. 12–14)

E. Punishment Against the Babylonians (vv. 15–17)

F. True God in Heaven Will Contrast Fake Gods in Babylon (vv. 18–20)

III. HABAKKUK’S PRAISE (Hab 3). “Habakkuk does not end with a wail, but with a song. It does not end with inquiry, but with affirmation. It does not end with frustration, but with faith.”[21] Habakkuk 3 records Habakkuk praying (vv. 1–2), pondering (vv. 3–15), and praising (vv. 16–19). When writing about Habakkuk 3 Warren Wiersbe says, “His circumstances hadn’t changed, but he had changed, and now he was walking by faith instead of sight. He was living by promises, not explanations.”[22]

A. The Message of God (vv. 1-2). After God’s second answer to Habakkuk we read what Habakkuk says in reply to God. In this section we see Habakkuk’s reply (v. 1), response (v. 2a), and request (v. 2b).

1. A Prayer (v. 1)

2. A Praise (v. 2)

B. The Majesty of God (vv. 3-15). Habakkuk 3:3–15 is a theophany.[23] A theophany is a manifestation of God on earth and “an appearance of God in great power and glory.”[24] In this section there is an awesome appearance of God (vv. 3–7), and there are amazing acts of God (vv. 18–19).

1. Where He Comes From (v. 3)

2. What He Looks Like (v. 4)

3. What He Does (vv. 5–15)

To the Nations (vv. 5–7)

To His Creation (vv. 8–12)

To His Enemies (vv. 13–15)

4. How God Affects Us (v. 16)

C. The Meaning of God (vv. 17-19). Notice the strong contrast to how this book started. We started with Habakkuk asking, “God, why don’t you do something?” (Hab 1:1–4) and “God, why would you do that?” (Hab 1:12—2:1). Now Habakkuk essentially says, “God, when you do what you said you will do, I exult you, rejoice in you, and look to you for strength.” In this section we see Habakkuk’s position (v. 16), problem (v. 17), and praise (vv. 18–19)

1. The Circumstance (v. 17)

2. The Calling to Praise (v. 18).

3. The Capacity of God for Strength (v. 19)

APPLICATION. Many of us probably have the same questions that Habakkuk asked. Questions such as, “God do you know what’s going on? God when will you intervene? God why don’t you do something? God if you are good why do you allow evil, pain, and suffering?”

In the book of Habakkuk we don’t get all of those answers at once. Just as each of the four gospels give us a portrait of Jesus from a different side and with a different emphasis, the book of Habakkuk answers our questions in a series of steps building upon each other. Each step gets us closer to understanding who God is and why he chooses to do what he does in the way he does it.

The Old Testament book of Habakkuk was written 2600 years ago (in 607 BC), yet it deals with a modern problem and common questions we all experience. The book of Habakkuk answers our questions because Habakkuk was asking the same questions then that we ask now. Thankfully, we don’t just read about Habakkuk’s questions, we read about God’s answers. In this process we are seeing Habakkuk go from a wonderer, to a watcher, and now to a worshipper. Habakkuk started in gloom, now he ends in glory. Habakkuk went from why to worship. Habakkuk’s faith has been tested (chapter 1), taught (chapter 2), and is triumphant (chapter 3).

In her book, Trembling Faith, Taylor Turkington writes, “Habakkuk does something different–he invites us into his conversation with God, like we’re sitting in on his prayer meeting. We have a front-row seat to Habakkuk’s wrestling, listening, bravery, and gritty faith.”[25]

SERMONS FROM HABAKKUK: “REVERENT WRESTLINGS”

ARTICLES FROM HABAKKUK

[1] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[2] Habakkuk 2:4 is quoted in Romans 1:17, Galatians 3:11, and Heb 10:38.

[3] J. Ron Blue, “Habakkuk” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament, edited by John Walvoord and Roy Zuck (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 1985), 1508.

[4] C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago, IL: Moody, 2007),221.

[5]This material on the kings during Habakkuk is adapted from J.K. Bruckner, “Habakkuk, Book of” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, edited by Mark Boda and J. Gordon McConville (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012), 294-301, specifically p. 296.

[6] Bullock, Introduction to the Old Testament: Prophets, 219.

[7] Bullock, Introduction to the Old Testament: Prophets, 219.

[8] YHWH occurs 6,823 times in Old Testament. See Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs. Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 217–19.

[9] Other names for God based on Hebrew are “God” from Elohim (which is the more universal name for God) and “Lord” from Adonai (which was a divine title for God). The word “Jehovah” in some Bibles consists of the Hebrew consonants from Yahweh combined with the Hebrew vowels from Adonai.

[10] One commentary on Habakkuk 2:2 tells us, “The choice of ‘LORD’ here rather than the more general term for God probably emphasizes the fact that Habakkuk addressed his words to Israel’s covenant God” (Richard D. Patterson, Habakkuk, Cornerstone Biblical Commentary vol. 10[Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2008],427).

[11] B. T. Arnold, “Babylon” (pp. 53-60) edited by Mark J. Boda and Gordon J. McConville, Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets (Downers Grove, IL; Inter-Varsity Press, 2012), 59.

[12] The NLT translates it as “message” and the NIV as “prophecy.”

[13] Leland Ryken, Symbols and Reality (Wooster, OH: Weaver Book Company, 2016), 31.

[14] Ryken, Symbols and Reality, 32-43.

[15] Ryken, Symbols and Reality, 50.

[16] Ryken, Symbols and Reality, 49-52.

[17] Page Brooks and D. A. Neal, “Theodicy,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[18] Thomas Constable, Notes on Habakkuk, 2013 edition, p. 8.

[19] See O. Palmer Robertson, The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990), 212–14; Richard D. Patterson, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary (Chicago, IL: Moody, 1991), 127–29, for further discussion of the book’s unity.

[20] Bruckner, “Habakkuk, Book of,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, 295.

[21] Constable, Notes on Habakkuk, 11.

[22] Warren Wiersbe, Be Amazed (Colorado Springs, CO: David C Cook, 2010), 157.

[23] The clearest theophany in Scripture, besides Habakkuk 3:3–15, is Exodus 19:9, 18.

[24] Waylon Bailey, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, vol. 20, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1999), 358.

[25] Taylor Turkington, Trembling Faith: How a Distressed Prophet Helps Us Trust God in a Chaotic World (Brentwood, TN: B&H, 2023), 15–16.

An Introduction to Romans

October 18, 2025 by Christopher L. Scott

My keyword that I believe summarizes the entire book is “Saving.”

The apostle Paul was in his prime when he wrote his letter to the Romans. He was at the top of his game and Romans should be called his “magnum opus.” It’s the longest and most theologically significant letter that Paul wrote. With that said, Romans is perhaps the least controversial, yet most important book in the New Testament. Paul’s desire—yet inability to visit is that Rome—created one of the most magnificent pieces of literature of all time

KEY VERSE IN ROMANS. “For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. For in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, “BUT THE RIGHTEOUS man SHALL LIVE BY FAITH” (Romans 1:16–17, NASB).

BIG IDEA. The apostle Paul teaches both Jews and gentiles about their inherited sin nature, God’s gracious gift of salvation obtained by faith in Jesus Christ, and that God’s grace that has been extended to all people.

AUTHORSHIP OF ROMANS. The book of Romans is part of what’s called the hauptbriefe, which is a list of letters in the New Testament that all scholars accepted as written by Paul. The book of Romans, 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philippians, and Philemon are all seen as authentic letters written by Paul (even liberal scholars admit this).

Internal Evidence. Paul calls himself a bond servant of Christ (Rom 1:1) an apostle (Rom 1:1), he is an apostle to the gentiles (Rom 11:13; 15:15–20). He says that he wants to come see the people he is writing to (Rom 1:10b–12), but has been prevented from doing that (Rom 1:13–15). He was prevented from coming to them (Rom 15:22), but he hopes to visit them soon when he goes to Spain (Rom 15:23–24). He’s going to Jerusalem to deliver a gift (Rom 15:25–27), but when done he will go to Rome (Rom 15:28–29). Paul likely was born at the same time as Jesus in the city of Tarsus (Acts 9:11), an important city in the Roman province of Cilicia within Asia Minor. This “Paul” is an Israelite, descendant of Abraham, from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom 3:9; 4:1; 9:24), has a strong desire to win the lost (Rom 9:1–5; 10:1–4), and has preached the gospel where it has not been preached (Rom 15:20) from Jerusalem to Illyricum (Rom 15:18–19). We could identify Paul as the author of the book of Romans by his name directly (Rom 1:1), family background (Rom 11:1), travels (Rom 15:25–27), and relationships (Rom 16:1–24).

External Evidence. No one from church history ever raised a voice to challenge the authorship of Romans. There was no serious challenge to the claim that Paul wrote Romans.[1] Various ancient writers include Romans in their lists of authentic documents: Marcion, the Muratorian fragment, as well as a steady stream of patristic writers starting with Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus all say Paul wrote Romans. Similarly, here’s a list of apostolic Fathers that echo phrases from Romans: Clement in 1 Clement 32.1 (Rom 9:5); 35.5 (Rom 1:29–32); Ignatius in The Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 19.3 (Rom 6:4); The Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6.2 (Rom 6:17); The Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians 9.2; The Epistle of Ignatius to the Symrnaeans 1.1 (Rom 1:3–4).

DATE AND OCCASION. Paul’s letter to the Romans was meant to provide an introduction to him as an apostle and garner support for him on his future journey to Spain. (If the believers in Rome knew Paul and his teachings, he hoped they would support him.) Paul likely wrote the book of Romans from Corinth in AD 57 during the three months he spent in that city as recorded in Acts 20:1–3. Romans 15:26 mentions he received contributions from Macedonia and Acaia for the poor in Jerusalem and Acts 20:3–6 mentions that he was preparing to return to Jerusalem with this love offering. Romans 15:28–29 reveals Paul’s plans to stop in Rome on his way to Spain after he delivers a contribution to the poor in Jerusalem (see Rom 15:25–28; Acts 20—21). Paul wanted to go to Rome (Rom 1:13; 15:22–23). Acts 20:3 and 2 Cor 13:1, 10 tell us he spent three months in Corinth in winter or spring of AD 57. Additional support for this view that Paul wrote from the city of Corinth is based on Paul commending Phoebe (who carried this letter according to Rom 16:2) and resided in Cenchrea (a neighboring town of Corinth, see Rom 16:1–2). When “Gaius” sends his greetings in the letter (Rom 16:23) it may be the same Gaius that Paul baptized in Corinth (1 Cor 1:14). The “Erastus” in Romans 16:23 might be the same man mentioned in 2 Timothy 4:20 that Paul has left in Corinth and might match an inscription mentioned in Corinth.[2]

THEMES. The themes of Romans consist of contrasts. These contrasts are prominent and reiterated in almost every chapter either by using the word, a synonym, or a reference to the concept. The themes are contrasts between:

Jew and Gentile
Sin and Grace
Law and Faith
Death and Life

AUDIENCE. The audience of Paul’s letter to the Romans included both Jews (Rom 1:13; 4:1; 9:1—11:36) and gentiles (Rom 1:5, 12–14; 11:13). Yet, I believe it was written to gentile Christians to rehearse and teach them about their roots of their Christian faith. Gentile Christians were probably the majority; Jewish Christians were probably the minority.[3] Suetonius, in his Life of Claudias, says that the Roman emperor Claudias expelled Jews from Rome because of rioting due to debates about who Christ was (25.2, 4). This would have happened in AD 49. This was verified by Luke when he writes that Priscilla and Acquila, residents of Rome, were in Corinth because of that edict (Acts 18:2). Whatever the context, the letter is written to those in Christ (Rom 1:6) in Rome (Rom 1:7) who have a strong and mature faith (Rom 1:11–12; 15:14; 16:19). The letter was meant to encourage mature believers, likely Gentiles that have spent years living as Christians in Rome, who were also welcoming back Jews who had been expelled from the city but now are returning after the edict of Claudias had lifted. (Most scholars believe the edict would not have been in place for very long, especially since Claudias died in AD 54.)[4] Thus, Jews would be returning to Rome to find a strong Gentile Christian church, to which Paul is teaching the Gentile Christians how to welcome back these Jewish Christians.[5]

THEOLOGICAL TREATISE. While some people claim it is a systematic theology or theological treaty, the letter does not address several important theological topics. Ecclesiology is not explained in the letter. While the word, “ekklesia” occurs in Romans 16:1, 4, 5, 16, 23, it describes a local house church and does not provide instructions about the church. Romans 12:3–8 mentions “the body of Christ” but doesn’t describe the community as a church. Eschatology is only referenced within the context of God’s judgment (Rom 2:5–11) and the need for vigilance before the end time. There is no teaching on the “parousia” and the Eucharist is not even hinted at in this letter.

THE CITY OF ROME. It was the largest and most influential city of the first-century. It was an economic hub and vast commercial empire that had enjoyed worldly prominence for more than a century. The phrase, “All Roads Lead to Rome” was true because of the network of highways built to connect it to many other cities. The city of Rome was also a melting pot of cultures and languages. There were many Jews[6] living there, most of which were poor, although there were some groups of Jews that were better educated and wealthier.[7] The Jews lived as different groups of segregated parts of the city and had their own leaders in those smaller communities. Ancient literature we’ve discovered indicates the Romans looked down on Jews because of circumcision (Rom 2:25–29; 4:9–12), Sabbath-keeping (Rom 14:5–6), and food customs (Rom 14:2–23). The city was polytheistic with worship of many foreign deities alongside emperor worship.

THE CHURCH OF ROME. There are three traditions about who founded the church in Rome. I’ll start with the least likely option and end with the most likely option.

Peter. According to the Catalogus Liberianus 25.4(AD 354) the church was founded by Peter and Peter was its first bishop. Additionally, Irenaeus writes in about AD 180 that Peter and Paul both founded the church in Rome (Haer 3.1.2; 3.3.1). However, it seems unlikely because Peter was still in Jerusalem for the Jerusalem Council in AD 50, and we know that Claudias kicked Jews out of the city of Rome because of rioting caused by Christ which occurred in AD 49. (How could Christians be in Rome as a result of Peter’s ministry if he had not yet been to Rome?) This also seems unlikely because Paul probably would not have invested time and energy into a city which had already been evangelized (see Rom 15:20 where Paul writes that he won’t build on another man’s foundation).

Jewish Converts from Feast of Pentecost. A possible view is that Jews from the city of Rome, who were converted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10), could have brought their faith in Jesus as Messiah back to the city of Rome. In this way, the Gospel would have started in Jewish synagogues and spread from there. However, it seems unlikely a group of new believers like that would establish such an influential church.

Associates of Paul. Another possible origin of the church in Rome was that associates of the apostle Paul had taken the gospel to the city and began the church there. I think this view is most likely for several reasons. First, this is a pattern seen in other areas of the New Testament (Acts 19:10; Col 1:6–7). Second, Paul seems to have had a long list of friends and associates in the city (he lists twenty-six by name in Rom 16:3–16 in a way that suggests they had shared a gospel-centered ministry on other occasions). Third, the letter does not attempt to defend Paul’s apostolic authority. The readers seem to assume and know he’s an apostle appointed by Christ. Fourth, Paul’s first-missionary journey was in AD 47–48 and Romans was written in AD 57, thus leaving a ten-year span in which some of his earliest converts of his missionary trip could have taken the gospel “further” to Rome on his behalf. Fifth, the Roman commercial empire spanned many countries and thousands of miles. It should not surprise us that the gospel reached Rome without Paul going there. Maybe someone traveling to a city in which Paul was conducting his first missionary journey (AD 47–48) or second missionary journey (AD 49–52) heard the gospel while traveling there and then returned back to Rome with it. This could have occurred not as just something on “one occasion” or by “one person” but by several different groups at different times, presenting a “composite” founding of the church by different groups at different times.[8]

An Outline of ROMANS

INTRODUCTION (1:1–17)

I. SIN (1:18—3:20) – Why am I this way?

II. SALVATION (3:21—5:21) – How am I saved?

III. SANCTIFICATION (6:1—8:39) – How do I grow?

IV. SOVERIGNTY (9:1—11:36) – Who’s in charge?

V. SERVICE )12:1—15:13) – What do I do?

CONCLUSION (15:14—16:27)

[1] As a result of this external evidence, some New Testament introduction books don’t even address “authorship” as a category in their chapters on Romans.

[2] See David W. J. Gill, “Erastus the Aedile,” TynD 40 (1989): 293–302. Cited in D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 394.

[3] Douglas Moo, Romans, 2^nd ed., NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2018), 12.

[4] Carson and Moo, New Testament Introduction, 395–96.

[5] Douglas Moo, Romans, 4–5.

[6] One resource suggests that 20,000–50,000 Jews were living in the city, which was about 5 percent of the population (Craig S. Keener, Bible Background Commentary, 2nd ed. [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014], 422). Another resource suggests 50,000 (Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 33, Anchor Yale Bible [New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008], 27.

[7] Keener, Bible Background Commentary, 422.

[8] Kenneth Hanna, From Gospels to Glory, 162–63

An Introduction to 1 John

October 15, 2025 by Christopher L. Scott

“Redirecting” or “Instructing”

First John is one of the most personal and intimate letters even though it mentions no names or locations. It also is one of the most doctrinally complex letters while one of the most practical. It’s difficult to outline, yet its topics and intentions are crystal clear. If I were to summarize this book into one word it would be “redirecting” or “instructing.”

KEY VERSES IN 1 JOHN. Two different sets of key verses emerge from 1 John depending on how you interpret the purpose of this letter.

The “Tests of Fellowship” view of 1 John sees 1 John 1:3–4 as the key verses of the letter. “What we have seen and heard we proclaim to you also, so that you too may have fellowship with us; and indeed our fellowship is with the Father, and with His Son Jesus Christ. These things we write, so that our joy may be made complete” (1 John 1:3–4, NASB).[1] This view believes John was writing to clarify whether or not Christians were “in good standing with God.” In other words, they were saved by God but might not have been in fellowship with God.

The “Tests of Life” view of 1 John sees 1 John 5:13 as the key verse of the letter. “These things I have written to you who believe in the name of the Son of God, so that you may know that you have eternal life” (1 John 5:13). This view believes John was writing to clarify whether or not the readers were genuine believers.

In addition to 1 John 1:3–4 and 1 John 5:13, I would list 1 John 4:7 as a concise summary of the theology and application of the letter. “Beloved, let us love one another, for love is from God; and everyone who loves is born of God and knows God” (1 John 4:7).

Furthermore, in addition to 1 John 1:3–4; 4:7; and 5:13, I would say 1 John 4:14 is perhaps one of the most critical verses of the letter: “We have seen and testify that the Father has sent the Son to be the Savior of the world.”

THE PURPOSE OF 1 JOHN. Some people see 1 John 2:1, 26 as verses that indicate the “purpose statements” of the letter. The purpose of 1 John is to correct wrong doctrine and practice, to establish true believers and expose false teachers, and it is polemical yet also pastoral.

BIG IDEA. How to have Christian fellowship based on the truth of God and the love of God.

AUTHOR. The author of 1 John was the disciple of Jesus named John, the son of Zebedee, brother of James (Mark 1:19–20). John likely was 88–93 years old when he wrote 1 John. There is no good reason to deny that John the disciple of Jesus is the author of 1 John. Let’s look at the internal and external evidence.

Internal Evidence. There are several lines of internal evidence that indicate John, the disciple of Jesus, is the author of 1 John.

The author actually saw Jesus. We learn from 1 John 1:1–4; 4:14 that the author was an eye-witness of Jesus. This author (unlike Hebrews) wants to tell us about something he saw, heard, and touched.

The author is authoritative in what he says about Jesus. When we read 1 John 1:10; 2:4, 18; 4:5–6 the author speaks in a dogmatic and authoritative way that’s consistent with a New Testament apostle. When he writes, “Little children” it suggests his authority over them. In this way the author expected his instructions to be obeyed. He’s dogmatic, there’s no disputing the truth he declares, and there’s no room for compromise.

The abstract ideas in the letter are similar to the Gospel of John. In 1 John we read about topics such as light, life, love, eternal life, logos, and sin. These topics are all similar to topics contained in the Gospel of John, 2 John, and 3 John. Reading all these works together seems to indicate a common author.

Conclusion from Internal Evidence. These do not provethe author of 1 John was the disciple of Jesus named John, but it does support that common belief.

External Evidence. No other person other was ever suggested by the early church to have written 1 John.[2] Furthermore, 1 John has better external attestation than any other New Testament general epistle. Let’s look at some possible, probable, as well as undeniable allusions and references to 1 John in the early church.[3]

Possible Allusions to 1 John. Most scholars see possible allusions to John’s first letter in Clement of Rome (AD 35–99), and Ignatius (Died AD 140).

Probable Allusions to 1 John. We have more certainty about probable allusions to 1 John in the Didache (AD 90–120), the Epistle of Barnabas (AD 130), the Shepherd of Hermas (likely second-century), the Epistle of Diognetus (AD 130), writings of Polycarp (AD 69–155), writings of Justin Martyr (AD 100–165), and writings of Papias (who lived AD 60–130, at the same time as John, and knew John).

Undeniable Allusions and References to 1 John. While there might be varying interpretations about my previous citations of 1 John in the early church, the following is a list of undeniable references to the letter of 1 John and to the apostle John as its author. Among these are the Muratorian Canon, Irenaeus (AD 130–202), Tertullian (AD 155–222), Clement of Alexandria (AD 150–215), Origen of Alexandria (AD 185–253), and Dionysius (AD 470–544).

Conclusion from External Evidence. As you can see, there is strong evidence from several different witnesses within the early centuries of the church that suggest John was the author of this letter.

CONNECTING JOHN TO EPHESUS IN ASIA MINOR. There are various references throughout church history to John, the apostle, being sent to Ephesus and spending his time there.

Eusebius. Often quoted are the words of Eusebius who is regarded as one of the best early church historians. Eusebius lived AD 260–339 and wrote in Ecclesiastical History, 3.1.1, “Such was the condition of the Jews. Meanwhile the holy apostles and disciples of our Saviour were dispersed throughout the world. Parthia, according to tradition, was allotted to Thomas as his field of labor, Scythia to Andrew, and Asia to John, who, after he had lived some time there, died at Ephesus.”

Irenaeus. The testimony of Irenaeus is especially significant because of his close connection to the apostle John. Church history tells us that Irenaeus was a disciple of a man named Polycarp, and Polycarp was a disciple of John. Irenaeus lived AD 125–202 and wrote in Against Heresies, 3.1.1, “Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia” (Also see Against Heresies, 3.3.4).

DATE. First John likely was written about AD 90. Some scholars say it was written before AD 70, but that is based on internal evidence. Church tradition tells us John moved to Ephesus in Asia Minor sometime before AD 70. It was there he began his mission to the Gentiles. Dating John’s life and his writings is difficult because he disappears from Acts after chapter eight.

THEMES. New Testament scholar Daniel Wallace calls 1 John a “smorgasbord of theological concepts.”[4] While I generally agree, my study of this letter has discovered what I believe to be four common themes of the letter.

Love. In 1 John loving others is something Christians do in order to follow God’s example. Loving others also shows our faith is genuine. See 1 John 2:5, 10, 11, 15–17; 3:1–3, 11–12, 13–18, 23–24; 4:7–10, 11–14, 15–21; 5:1–3.

Commandments. According to 1 John we show that we love God when we follow his commandments. See 1 John 2:3–6, 7–8; 3:22–24; 4:21; 5:1–3.

Children. John teaches that because we are born of God what we do and how we act show that we are children of God. See 1 John 2:1–3, 12–14, 18, 28–29; 3:1–3, 7–10, 18; 4:4–6; 5:1–3, 21.

Abide. The theme of abiding is the most prevalent in this letter. The idea of “abide” sometimes refers to adhering to the apostolic testimony about Jesus while sometimes referring to following a certain conduct modeled by Jesus. See 1 John 2:6, 10, 14, 27, 28; 3:6, 9, 14, 15, 17, 24 [three times]; 4:12, 15, 16 [three times].

CONSTRASTS IN THE BOOK. Similar to the Gospel of John, 1 John is filled with contrasting ideas. Here are the ones I’ve discovered: Christ and antichrists, righteousness and sin, light and darkness, truth and falsehood, love of the Father and love of the world, spirit of God and spirit of the world, children of God and children of Satan, righteous deeds and evil deeds, as well as love and hate.

AUDIENCE. As the last living apostle, John had a strong and wide presence over the churches in Ephesus and the surrounding region (see 2 Jn 10). Churches at that time would normally gather in a wealthy person’s home. It was to those types of churches that John wrote this letter. The audience of the letter was genuine believers. See 1 Jn 2:12–14, 20–21; 3:1–2, 13, 18; 4:1, 4, 7, 11; 5:13.

First John probably was a circular letter intended for a group of churches. While there’s no hint of identity or location in the letter, early church tradition tells us it was meant for churches in Asia Minor (modern Turkey). As 1 John testifies, a group or groups had experienced doctrinal error, had left John’s Christian teaching, and joined another group (see 1 John 2:18–19). Those who stayed we call “adherents” and those who left we call “secessionists” or “adversaries” and were described by John as “antichrists” (1 Jn 2:18, 22, 4:3; 2 Jn 7), “false prophets” (1 Jn 4:1), and deceivers (2 Jn 7). Again, John appears to be writing to Christians (1 Jn 2:12–14, 21; 5:13) that have been attacked by false teaching (1 Jn 2:18–28; 4:1–6; 5:6–7).

AUDIENCE OF 1 JOHN. While the audience is not directly addressed in the introduction or conclusion, church history tells us that the readers were part of the church in Ephesus within Asia Minor. See 1 Jn 2:12–14, 20–21, 27; 3:1–2, 13, 18; 4:1, 4, 7, 11; 5:13. Some had left the church (1 Jn 2:18–19, 22; 4:3).

FALSE TEACHINGS CORRECTED IN 1 JOHN. In the second-century AD Gnosticism, Docetism, and Cerinthianism were common and well-developed. The beginnings of those three philosophical schools were in the first-century when John wrote his letter. Let’s explore each of these topics separately.

Gnosticism. The Gnostics denied the essential truth of the incarnation that Christ came in the flesh. Gnostics saw matter as evil and spirit as good. They believed in the deliverance of the flesh by acquiring knowledge. Gnosticism comes from the Greek word, ginoscow, “to know.” The doctrine of Gnosticism is combatted in 1 John 2:22; 4:3. The Gnostics believed that since all matter was evil, Jesus did not come in the flesh. Thus, they rejected the doctrine of Jesus as the god-man. It is possible, based on 1 John 1:6, 9, that the Gnostics believed they had achieved a level of sinlessness. Or like some later Gnostics, that they believed the sins they committed were not sinful.[5]

Docetism. The Docetists believed Jesus’ humanity was not real and said Jesus only appeared to have a physical body. Docetism comes from the Greek word, dokeo, “to seem” or “to appear.” It was a branch of Gnosticism and also rejected the incarnation. Docetists believed the Christ—who was good—could not become flesh because flesh was bad. Docetism is combatted in 1 John 2:22; 4:3. Docetism was taught by Saturninus of Antioch who said Jesus was without birth, without body, and without figure. Practically, the docetics were known for minimizing a focus on right conduct. Some believe they had appealed to John’s gospel as “proof texts” that you simply “believe” but do not need to “behave” because of a minimized future judgement. They possibly used John 3:3, 18, 21; 6:54, 56; 11:26 to support their views.[6]

Cerinthianism. Cerinthus was an Egyptian man that came to Ephesus and was an opponent of John. He taught that Jesus was only a man, that the divine Christ descended on Jesus at baptism, and that the divine Christ left Jesus at the crucifixion. John possibly corrects Cerinthianism in 1 John 2:23; 5:6.[7]

LACK OF OLD TESTAMENT REFERENCES. First John is an unusual letter because it contains very few Old Testament references and allusions. The teaching about “love” in 1 John 3:11 is contrasted with the hate of Cain in 1 John 3:12. This is the only Old Testament citation in this letter.

THE GENRE OF 1 JOHN. You might have noticed 1 John is not a typical New Testament letter like what we have written by Paul, Peter, James, Hebrews, Jude, or even what we see in 2 John or 3 John. First John does not conform to the normal structure of New Testament letters. There’s no greeting, no personal name, no thanksgiving, no conclusion, and no introduction. Because of this, some scholars classify this letter as a tract, essay, theological treatise, or grouping of sermons.

An Outline of 1 John

The outline I originally developed from this letter, based on my own study, was this:

INTRODUCTION (1 John 1:1–4)

I. LIFE WITHOUT SIN (1 John 1:5—2:27)

II. LIFE AS A SON (1 John 2:28—3:24)

III. LIFE IN THE SON (1 John 4:1—5:13)

CONCLUSION (1 John 5:14–21)

However, after examining Hall Harris III’s masterful commentary, I followed his structure of the letter and have outlined the book below. In various sections I’ve adopted other outlines into mine, thus there are footnotes throughout that show when I borrow from others in addition to Harris. In the fifteen years that I’ve been preparing Bible study notes and preaching sermons, I have outlined almost half of the books of the Bible. First John has been, without a doubt, the hardest book to outline.

I. INTRODUCTION (1:1–4)

II. GOD IS LIGHT AND THERE IS NO DARKNESS IN HIM (1:5—3:10)

A. How to Have Fellowship with God (1:5—2:2) – “God ls light” is the key statement for 1:5—3:10

Summary Statement: Light (1:5)

1. Fellowship with God Is Fellowship in Light (1:5–7).

1 John 1:6—2:1 begins a series of “if” clauses. These divide into pairs of “If we say” followed by a negative statement that possibly represents the claims of the secessionists and their results (vv. 6, 8, 10). Other pairs are “but if we” (1:7), “if we” (1:9), “and if” (2:1). These are positive statements that reflect the counter claims of the author.

The three negative apodoses are intended to bring out the implications of following the opponents teaching. The three positive apodoses statements are intended to bring out the implication of following orthodox (apostolic) teaching of the author.[8]

a) Claim #1 – Those in Darkness (1:6)[9] b) Counter-claim #1 – Cleansed (1:7)[10]

2. Fellowship with God is Fellowship Absent from Sin (1:8—2:2)

a) Claim #2 – Those in Deception (1:8) b) Counter-claim #2 – Confessing (1:9)

c) Claim #3 – Those Who Defame God (1:10) d) Counter-claim #3 – Conquering (2:1a)

B. How We Have Intimate Knowledge of God (2:3–11). This section has three requirements to have intimate knowledge of God. “The one who says” ho legon / ὁ λέγων at the beginning of 2:4, 6, 9 is three participles. They are claims that indirectly reference the claim of John’s opponents. Each of these claims draws on the immediately preceded theme. For example, 2:4a is from 2:3, 2:6a is from 2:5, and 2:9a is from 2:8.

1. By Keeping His Word (vv. 3–5) – Obedient Love

2. By Walking as Jesus Walked in His Light (vv. 6–8) – Abiding Love

3. By Loving His Brothers (vv. 9–11) – Light Love

C. How We Have a Relationship with God (2:12–17). This section gives John’s readers assurance that they are known by God.

1. By Being God’s Children, Not Children of the Evil One (vv. 12–14). These three verses assure John’s readers of their salvation.

2. By Loving His Father, and Not the World (vv. 15–17). These three verses urge John’s readers to reject an evil love of the world.

D. How to Maintain that Relationship in the Future (2:18–27).[11] This section gives strong concerns of the secessionist opponents. In this section John teaches us three ways true believers can identify contemporary antichrists: they depart from Christian fellowship (vv. 18–21), they deny the Christian faith (vv. 22–25), and they try to deceive the Christians who are faithful (vv. 26–27).

1. An Anti-Christ is Coming (vv. 18–19). To recognize false teachers and their deception look for abandonment. The first proof of fellowship is social.

2. An Anointing Has Occurred (vv. 20–23). To recognize false teachers and their deception look for denial that Jesus is the Christ. The second proof of fellowship is doctrinal.

3. An Abiding in What Was Taught (vv. 24–26). To recognize false teachers and their deception look for a lack of anointing from the Spirit. The third proof of fellowship is spiritual.

4. An Appeal to Continue in What Was Taught (v. 27).

E. How to Be Prepared for the Coming of Christ (2:28—3:10)

1. Abide in Him and Practice Righteousness (2:28–29). These two verses form an inclusion with 1 John 3:9–10. Many of the same themes are repeated regarding abiding, being fathered by God, being righteous, avoiding unrighteousness, as well as the manifestation of the Son of God and children of God.

2. Purify Yourselves Now in Preparation for Future Perfect Purity (3:1–3). 1 John 3:1–3 is a parenthesis where John reflects on what it means to be fathered by God as described in 1 John 2:29.

3. Practice Righteousness While Purging Evil from Your Life (3:4–8). In this section John shares three reasons that habitual, intentional, unconfessed sin is not part of the life of a true child of God. John makes the case that sin is incompatible with believers because of what we will be (1 Jn 3:2–3), sin is incompatible with believers because of what sin is (1 Jn 3:4), and sin is incompatible because of what Christ has done to remove our sins and destroy the works of Satan (1 Jn 3:5–8).[12]

4. Born of God Means Being a Good Person (3:9–10). First John 3:9–10 form an “inclusion” with 1 John 2:28–29. Both sets of verses teach about abiding, being fathered by God, being righteous, as well as being children of God.

III. WE ARE GODLY AND THERE IS NO DARKNESS IN US (3:11—5:12)

A. Commands for Love (3:11–24).[13] Subdivisions within this section are not clear. I have based my divisions starting with an inferential “for” in v. 11 (Greek word hoti), followed by “brethren” in v. 13 (Greek word adelphoi), and “little children” in v. 18 (Greek word teknia).[14]

1. Love One Another Thoughtfully (vv. 11–12)

2. Love One Another Tangibly by Sacrificing and Giving (vv. 13–17)

3. Love One Another Tenaciously by Keeping God’s Commands (vv. 18–24)

B. Cautions for Life (4:1–6). A mention of the Holy Spirit in 1 John 3:24 requires comment from John. With that said, 1 John 4:1–6 is one single unit. Almost all scholars agree that 1 John 4:1–6 is one single unit along with 1 John 2:12–14 and 1 John 2:15–17 also being single units. However, I break 1 John 4:1–6 into two units following the words “beloved” (agapetoi) in 1 John 4:1 and “little children” (teknia) in 1 John 4:4.

1. How to Test Spirits (vv. 1–3). 1 John 4:1–6 contains a series of tests for whether a spirit is of the antichrist or the Holy Spirit. These tests are of the confession (vv. 1–3), crowd (vv. 4–5), and consistency (v. 6) of the false teachers.

2. How to Listen to God (vv. 4–6). While John has told his readers to look at the content of false teachers (vv. 1–3), now he tells his readers to look at the crowd of the false teachers (vv. 4–6).

C. Conditions for Godliness (4:7—5:4a). While 1 John 4:1–6 are tests for the spirits, now we see tests of love in 1 John 4:7–21. The topic of love is taught here, again as in 1 John 3:11–14, but the emphasis is more on sanctification than assurance of salvation. John tells us about the powerful effect of God’s love (1 Jn 4:7–12) as well as the perfecting of God’s love in us (1 Jn 4:13–21).[15]

1. God’s Character of Love (4:7–10). Again John’s method is like a spiral staircase. He addresses the same topic but from a different perspective. Here, he not only tells his readers to love (like he has been), but he provides the theological grounding for why they love. Here in 1 John 4:7–10 he tells us about the beginning of love (from God) and next in 1 John 4:11–16 he will teach us about the behavior of love.

2. God’s Command of Love (4:11–16a). While 1 John 4:7–10 taught us about the proof of love that has its origin in God the Father, now we learn about the motive and inspiration for loving others as taught in 1 John 4:11–16a. We could summarize John’s progression of thought by recognizing what God is (“love” from vv. 7–8), what God did (“send his Son” from vv. 9–11), and what God is doing (“abiding in us” from vv. 12–16).

3. God’s Continual Love (4:16b–19). Again, John often addresses the same topic but says something different about the topic each time. Thus far he’s described love as related to salvation (vv. 7–10), love as related to sanctification (vv. 11–16a), and now love as related to our sentence and judgement (vv. 16b–19).

4. God’s Children of Love (4:20—5:4a). When we read 1 John 4:21, we might have the question: “Who is my brother?” John tells us that next. While 1 John 4:20–21 is a claim, 1 John 5:1 is about children, and 1 John 5:2–4a are about commandments.

D. Characteristics of God (5:4b–12). In the previous section John wrote about a claim (4:20–21), who are children of God (5:1), and God’s commandments (5:2–4a). Now he transitions to conquerors (5:4b). Another way to see the transitions in 1 John 5 is that as begotten ones we love our brothers and sisters (1 John 5:1–3), and as believing ones we live victoriously (1 John 5:4–5).

1. Task and the Work of Christ (vv. 4b–8). We live victoriously because our faith in Christ allows us to conquer the world. We learn we are conquerors in vv. 4b–5, and then we get certification of that in vv. 6–8. These verses teach us that we are winners (vv. 4b–5), and they teach us about the witness to that winning (vv. 6–8). 1 John 4:4b–5 records our victory and 1 John 4:6–8 record God’s testimony.

2. Testimony and the Witness of God Concerning the Son (vv. 9–12). In 1 John 5:4b–8 we learned about the content of faith that allows us to conquer the world. Now John reveals the testimony of God concerning his son (vv. 9–12).

IV. CONCLUSION (5:13–21). This fourth section is the conclusion of John’s letter. The formal letter has ended in 1 John 5:12. Now we arrive at the conclusion. While John introduced this letter with certainties of the incarnation (1 John 1:1–4) he now concludes his letter with certainties of life (1 John 5:13–21).

A. Assurance of Christian Life that Is Eternal (5:13). This is a transitional statement from the body of the letter to the epilogue. 1 John 5:13 begins the conclusion but also forms a climax of the letter. In my opinion, 1 John 5:13 reveals why John has written this letter: to assure and strengthen his readers about their beliefs in Christ. This was needed because John’s readers had received opposition from people adhering to different teachings about the person and work of Christ. These teachings were different than what John and the other apostles had taught.

B. Applications of Christian Life that Is Eternal (5:14–21). These verses form the epilogue of the letter which consists of two sections. We could also view 1 John 5:14–21 as expressions of life in prayer (vv. 14–15), in intercession (vv. 16–17), in knowledge (vv. 18–20), and in fidelity (v. 21).[16]

1. Consistent Prayer and Omission of Sin (vv. 14–17). From 1 John 5:13 we know we have eternal life, and from 1 John 5:14–17 we know we are heard.

2. Birth of God and Distance from Evil (vv. 18–21). In these four verses John restates many of his themes: conduct of the believer (v. 18), assurance of salvation (v. 19), truth about Christ (v. 20), and implicit denial of the heretics’ doctrines (v. 21).[17]

APPLICATIONS FROM 1 JOHN

Believe the right things about Jesus Christ.
Behave the right way based on what you believe about Jesus Christ.

The Fellowship Life – Sermons from 1 John

[1] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[2] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, rev. ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1996),859.

[3] In the following section I have adapted material from Daniel Akin, 1, 2, 3 John, vol. 38 of The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2001), 25–26 and from Daniel B. Wallace, “23. 1 John: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” https://bible.org/seriespage/1-john-introduction-argument-and-outline.

[4] Daniel B. Wallace, “23. 1 John: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” https://bible.org/seriespage/1-john-introduction-argument-and-outline

[5] Craig S. Keener, Bible Background Commentary, 2nd ed. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014), 708.

[6] Stephen Smalley, 1, 2, 3 John, rev. ed., WBC 51 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academic, 2008), 125–26.

[7] D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 679.

[8] W. Hall Harris III, 1, 2, 3 John, (Biblical Studies Press, 2003),60–61.

[9] Claim titles are from John MacArthur, 1, 2, 3 John (Chicago: Moody, 2007), 28–30.

[10] Counter-claim titles are from MacArthur, 1, 2, 3 John, 36–41.

[11] Another outline: Antichrists in the World (2:18–23). -Future Antichrist (v. 18a) -Present Antichrists (vv. 18b–23)

Vv. 18–19 there’s a coming antichrist that Jn connects with his opponents

Vv. 20–23 there’s a contrast of his readers—who received an anointing of the Spirit–with the person who lies and is an opponent aligned with the antichrist.

[12] Adapted from class notes by Mark Hitchcock, BE 107, Dallas Theological Seminary, fall 2015, p. 8.

[13] Another explanation of 1 John 3:11–18 is that Satan’s children murder God’s children (vv. 12, 14), Satan’s children hate God’s children (vv. 13, 15), Satan’s children are indifferent toward God’s children (vv. 16–18) (MacArthur, 1-3 John, 132–35).

[14] As I’ve repeatedly referenced, my outline is based on Harris, 1, 2, 3 John.

[15] Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 898.

[16] Stanley Toussaint, BE 107, DTS Online lectures.

[17] Daniel B. Wallace, “23. John: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” https://bible.org/seriespage/1-john-introduction-argument-and-outline