An Introduction to Psalms

Some of the Bible’s most beautiful literature is contained within the book of Psalms. These psalms share the deepest emotions of people who have believed in God and sought him in the “ups and downs” of life. The psalms bring joy and comfort to believers through both laments and heartfelt writings as well as the praise and joy of our Lord.

BIG IDEA: The book of Psalms is about a faithful and loving God. It reveals to us that we must have obedience to follow him. The book of Psalms is a reflection that God is good, life lived in faith following God is hard, yet he supports us.

AUTHORS.

Authors of the Different Psalms. The book of psalms was written by a diverse group of authors spanning many centuries (almost a millennium, in fact). As noted in this article, much debate occurs around the meaning of the Hebrew preposition, lamed. The use of lamed to label someone as an author has been attested in Northwest Semitic inscriptions, in other Semitic dialects which are similar to Hebrew (such as Arabic), and other biblical passages too (see Hab 3:1).[1] However, because that preposition, lamed, is used in a variety of ways, it’s wise to use internal evidence of each Psalm to evaluate the use of the preposition.

New Testament Writers’ View of the Author of the Psalms. We must not forget (especially among the voices of critical scholars) that Christ and his apostles followed the headings of each psalm as evidence for who wrote the psalms. I believe it would be wise for us to do the same! Based on those headings, here’s the breakdown of psalms written by different authors: David (73), Solomon (2), Sons of Korah (12), Asaph (12), Heman (1), and Ethan (1).

DATES WHEN THE PSALMS WERE WRITTEN. The psalms were written from the time of Moses through the return from exile. Various psalms, based on their content, are post-exilic.

We can broadly date some of the psalms based on who wrote them. Here’s a quick sample. The earliest psalm was probably Psalm 90, which was written by Moses, in about 1406 BC. The psalms that David likely wrote were composed between 1020 BC and 975 BC. The psalms of Asaph, a contemporary to David, likely were written during similar dates as David. Solomon likely composed his psalms in about 950 BC. The psalms attributed to Kora’s descendants, Heman and Ethan, were probably composed after Solomon. Some believe Heman and Ethan were connected with Ezra as Esrahites, so we could connect them to around the time of Ezra in 458 BC.

With that said, the psalms cover a period of time of roughly 1000 years.

THE BOOK OF PSALMS AND THE RELIGIOUS CALENDAR IN ISRAEL. If we are going to understand the psalms correctly, we must know about the religious calendar in Israel. The festivals and feasts of Israel often are described with different names. I’ve included the various titles in my explanations below.

Passover and Unleavened Bread. This occurred in the spring.
Weeks or Pentecost. It was also called “first fruits” and occurred in early summer.
Atonement and Tabernacles. This occurred in the fall.

These three great annual festivals are described in Exodus 23:14-19 and Leviticus 23:4–44. At these festivals people traveled to Jerusalem and celebrated God’s blessings and harvest. During these festivals people likely were involved in the temple rituals and probably used the psalms as part of their praise at the various temple festivals.

TITLES OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS. As we talk about the various “titles” of the book of Psalms found in the different ancient Near Eastern languages, we need to remember that these are “transliterations.” A transliteration is when the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, Arabic, etc. word is simply spelled into English letters.

When we read “The Psalms” in our English Bible, we must remember that title arrives through the doorway of both the Greek and Latin versions of the Old Testament.[2]

Greek. Let’s survey the available Greek manuscripts and what they reveal about the title of the book of Psalms.

The Septuagint (also known as the LXX) used the Greek word, psalmos, as a rendering of the Hebrew word, mizmor. That Greek word, psalmos, and Hebrew word, mizmor, mean “psalm” and are a possible reference to an instrumental accompaniment.[3]

The Vatican Greek manuscript, known as “Codex Vaticanus,” is a fourth century AD manuscript and has the title, psalmoi, which is translated as “Psalms.” This title appears to be what is used in the Gospel of Luke by Jesus (Luke 20:42) and again by Luke when he quotes Peter (Acts 1:20). Codex Vaticanus also has the subtitle, biblios psalmoi which is translated as “Book of Psalms.”

The Alexandrinus Greek manuscript, known as “Codex Alexandrinus,” is a fifth century AD manuscript of the Old Testament that has a different title for the psalms. Codex Alexandrinus has the title as psalterion, which means a stringed instrument. That word, psalterion, is likely the Greek translation of the Hebrew word, mizmor, which probably describes music accompanied by stringed instruments.

Hebrew. Next let’s look at the various Hebrew manuscripts of the book of Psalms and what they reveal to us about the title.

Most Hebrew manuscripts have the title, seper tehillim, which is translated as “Book of Praises.” The word, tehillim, is the plural form of the word tehillah which means “praise” and is used in the superscription of Psalm 145. This title, seper tehillim, appears to be a title describing content and not a title describing form.[4]Yet, some scholars believe tehillim is a technical term for the book because we would expect the plural form of tehillah to be tehillot.

With that said, in the earliest Hebrew manuscripts (known as Codex Aleppo and Codex Leningradensis) there is no title for the book of Psalms.

Conclusion. With that survey of the history and influence of the Septuagint within Christianity, the Greek word psalmos (“a song of praise”) became the catchall phrase used as the title of these 150 chapters. However, as a title it appears to be used without the emphasis on stringed instruments. It appears, based on most scholars’ best guess, that because mizmor is used in the title of fifty-seven of the psalms, that the Greek translators used the translation of mizmor as the title of the entire collection.[5]

THE TEXT OF THE PSALMS. There are at least three “text types” that we should use as part of our translation and interpretation of the psalms.

Masoretic Text (MT). The Masoretic text represents the superior text for several reasons. First, it’s in Hebrew which was the original language the psalms were written in. Second, often the Masoretic text has readings that are archaic, difficult, and rare, all of which suggest originality. The Masoretic text of the psalms is based on Codex Leningradensis. You will often see the Masoretic text abbreviated as “MT.”

Greek Septuagint (LXX). The Septuagint represents a different and often considered inferior textual tradition than the MT. It appears that in many locations the Septuagint translators struggled with awkward readings in the Masoretic text, so they smoothed out the Masoretic text when they translated it into Greek. With that said, Jerome and many translators in the past several centuries have heavily relied on the Septuagint for their translations. You will often see the Septuagint abbreviated as LXX.

Here’s a brief description of the various Greek texts. Codex Vaticanus is a fourth century AD manuscript which has all the psalms except Pss 105:27—137:6. Codex Sinaiticus is a fourth century AD manuscript that contains the entire book of Psalms. Codex Alexandrinus is a fifth century manuscript which has all the psalms except Psalm 49:20–79:11. I believe it’s important to note that all three of these Greek manuscripts contain an additional Psalm. Psalm 151 explains how David was a great warrior with amazing musical skill. Psalm 151 appears to acknowledge the 150 psalms were a complete unit. Most scholars believe the translation from Hebrew to Greek occurred after 200 BC.

The Masoretic text includes the superscriptions in the verse numbers. The Greek and English versions do not include the superscriptions in the verse numbers of the psalms. As a result, the numbering of the verses in the Hebrew Masoretic text (as well as commentaries and reference works that discuss them) will often be one or more verses higher.

Dead Sea Scrolls’ Psalms Scroll. Similar to the Septuagint, the Dead Sea Scrolls’ Psalms Scroll is considered to be an inferior text type. Out of the many books found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the book of Psalms appears most often. At least thirty-nine psalm scrolls or manuscripts have been found.[6]

PLACEMENT AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS IN THE CANON. The book of Psalms is located in our English Bibles among the “poetic books” or the “wisdom” books. These are the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon.

In the Hebrew Bible the book of Psalms appears in the third section called the “writings.” In most Hebrew Bibles the “writings” are located after the sections called the “Law” and the “Prophets.” In these Hebrew manuscripts the book of Psalms normally appears first among the books in the “Writings.” In Luke 24:44 Jesus said, “These are My words which I spoke to you while I was still with you, that all things which are written about Me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.” It appears here that Jesus mentions Psalms as the third division of the Old Testament Hebrew Bible because Psalms was the first book of that third section.

With that said, our English Bibles do not follow the order of books as they appear in Hebrew manuscripts. Instead, our English Bibles follow the order of the books of the Bible (as well as the titles given to them), from the Septuagint (LXX) and the Latin Vulgate.

COLLECTION AND FORMATION OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS

The book of Psalms was formed like the modern-day Mississippi River. What starts as one small stream in Minnesota gathers water from many small streams to create one large river by the time it reaches Louisiana. In the same way, the book of Psalms is one large book consisting of 150 psalms that were gathered over a period of time to form one book. Thomas Constable believes, “Ezra, the great renovator of post exilic Judaism, may have been responsible for adding these [Psalms 90—106 and Psalms 107—150] and perhaps putting the whole collection in its final form.”[7]

Outline of the Book of Psalms into Five Books. As you might notice in your Bible, the book of Psalms is divided up into five books. Book one contains Psalms 1—41, book two contains Psalms 42—72, book three contains Psalms 73—89, book four contains Psalms 90—106, and book five contains Psalms 107—150. Each of those five books ends with a doxology. Psalm 41:13 is a doxology for book one (Psalms 1—41). Psalm 72:18–19 is a doxology for book two (Psalms 42—72) and includes a note about how the prayers of David are ended in Psalm 72:20. Psalm 89:52 is a doxology for book three (Psalm 73—89). Psalm 106:48 is a doxology for book four (Psalms 90—106). Psalm 150 (the entire psalm) is a doxology for book five (Psalms 107—150).

Evidence of Psalms Divided up into Five Books. Our earliest evidence of the book of Psalms being divided up into five books comes from the Dead Sea Scrolls. It appears that the Qumran community had made copies of the book of Psalms. As I share below, at least thirty-nine psalms scrolls or manuscripts were found in various Qumran caves.[8] Some were partial and some were complete. However, several things were clear from these discoveries. The division of the book of Psalms into five books is evident in the Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts. Many of those manuscripts were probably copied in the first century AD.[9] This supports the common belief that the book of Psalms was in its final form (which we see now in our Bibles) at the close of the Canon in 400 BC.

The Pentateuch of Praise. We could call the book of Psalms the “Pentateuch of Praise.” But why do we have five books of psalms inside the book of Psalms? We do not know exactly why. Some scholars have worked hard to connect book one of the Psalms to the themes of Genesis, the themes of book two to Exodus, etc. However, I would not follow that conclusion. In my opinion that method seems forced and arbitrary. Let me give you a few examples. Psalm 114 is a psalm about the Exodus, yet it’s in book five, not book two. Psalm 104 is about creation in Genesis, yet it’s in book four, not book one.

A Response to the Pentateuch. Perhaps a better way to view the reason or purpose of the five books within the book of Psalms is a response to the five books of Moses. These five books within the book of Psalms is the congregation’s five-fold answer to God’s revelation in the five books of Moses.

The Text Suggests a Span of Collection. The psalms were written over a wide range of dates, so the collection of the psalms into books likely occurred over a long period of time. I think Psalm 72:20 gives us a hint of this. We read in Psalm 72:20, “The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended.”[10] This verse implies that the psalms of David had been collected up until that point in time. However, several psalms before Psalm 72 are not written by David, and there are seventeen psalms of David after Psalm 72, so this note probably reflects an early collection of psalms. In effect, the collection of psalms likely occurred over a long period of time.

Life in Israel Suggests a Span of Collection. Descriptions of life in Israel suggests a group of psalms had been collected and used. Solomon organized singing at the temple (2 Chri 5:11–14; 7:6; 9:11; Ecc 2:8). Jehoshaphat did the same thing (2 Chron 20:21–22) as well as Jehoiada (2 Chron 23:18). Hezekiah conducted religious reforms in Judah and in the process the musical guilds were reestablished (2 Chron 29:25–28, 30; 30:21; 31:2). In one instance Hezekiah told the Levites to praise God with the words of David and Asaph (2 Chron 29:30). Based on this, many scholars believe at least two collections of the psalms existed for Hezekiah to ask the Levites to use. Further evidence of collections of psalms would be Josiah reinstituting the temple music and musical guilds (2 Chron 35:15, 25).

Stages of Collection. The collection of the psalms was likely gradual and had frequent reorganization and revision. Old Testament scholar Allen Ross suggests a three-stage process.[11]

Stage #1. The first stage of collection likely was the writing of individual psalms. Some of these found their ways into the hymnal of the psalms. (See my section, “Psalms Aren’t Only in the Psalms” for examples of written psalms that didn’t make it into the book of Psalms.)
Stage #2. The second stage of collection of the psalms was the actual collecting activity. We see that collection in the five books in our Bibles today. The earliest evidence of this five-fold division of the book of Psalms is the Qumran scrolls found near the Dead Sea.
Stage #3. The third stage of collection could have been (or likely was) the work of a final editor that placed the psalms into their specific order.

The Psalms as a Collection. Psalm 1 and Psalm 2 are often seen as an introduction to the collection of the 150 psalms. Psalms 146—150 appear to be placed there as a conclusion to the 150 psalms.[12] If those psalms are the “bookends” of the psalms, many scholars see Psalms 90—106 (book 4) as the editorial center.[13]

Approaches to the Collection of the Psalms. I personally follow what is called the “canonical approach” to the psalms. This approach is contrary to previous approaches. Let’s survey the different works on the psalms.

Form-Critical Approach. The “Form-Critical” approach was advocated by J. Wellhausen, B. Duhm, and A. Ralhs, all who attributed the Psalms to the Maccabean period of the second century BC. H. Gunkel was also a famous psalms scholar and followed the “Form-Critical” approach but did not focus on historical background of the psalms.
Cult-Functional Approach. The “Cult-Functional” approach was taught by Sigmund Mowinkel and focused on the cultic and festival activity of the psalms. The psalms, according to Mowinkel, were used to celebrate God being enthroned as king. Much of his work were theories constructed from the Mesopotamian Akitu festival. Little of his work was based on exegesis of the psalms or cultural background as described in the Old Testament.
Canonical Approach to the Psalms. Starting with B. Child’s “Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture” (1979), a shift has occurred in the study of psalms. Much of the modern focus on the psalms has been on the compilation and intention given to how they are arranged. Various units in the psalms appear to have been placed together based on interpretations of the psalms. Scholars call these “seams” and our clearest (according to those scholars) are in the royal psalms. The approach I take to the collection and formation of the psalms is the canonical approach.

CONTENT AND COMMON THEMES IN THE BOOKS IN THE BOOK OF PSALMS

Some scholars, I believe, have correctly noticed themes of each of the books within the book of Psalms. I’ve collected the different observations below.

Thomas Constable believes book one (chs. 1—41) is the book of personal experience, book two (chs. 42—72) is the book of Elohim, book three (chs. 73—89) is the dark book, book four (chs. 90—106) is the book of the king, and book five (chs. 107—150) is the book of praise.[14]

COLLECTIONS OF PSALMS IN THE BOOK OF PSALMS

Scholar Allen Ross writes, “Since the writing of the Psalms ranged over such an extended period, there must have been various stages in its collection.”[15] If we set aside the numerous psalms of David, there are at least four collections of psalms within the book of Psalms.

Psalms of Asaph. These are Psalms 50, 73—83. They were composed by Asaph, but they also might have been composed or collected by his descendants. These psalms focus on God’s justice to Israel and the nations connected to Israel. These psalms also refer to God with the name[16] Elohim instead of Yahweh,[17] which is the common name of God used in the other psalms. These psalms at times feature a prophetic or divine voice, emphasis on history, and contain references to the covenant.[18]

Psalms of Ascents. These are Psalms 120—134. These psalms consist of lament (both individual and communal), confidence, wisdom, royal, and Zion. However, all of them place a heavy emphasis on Jerusalem.[19] These likely were assembled for worship reasons based on earlier materials. This is similar to how the Hebrew Bible collected five books and grouped them together because they were used in the annual feasts of Israel (Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Esther). These five books were put together and grouped together in the Hebrew Bible in a section called the “Writings” (it’s known in Hebrew as the kethubim, the third division in the Hebrew Bible). Some scholars propose that a small hymnal of psalms was given to pilgrims to use for singing as they traveled to Jerusalem.[20]

Hallel Hymnal. These are Psalms 104—106 (the end of book four), 111—117, and 135. Some people include Psalms 146—150 as part of the Hallel Hymnal. Many of these psalms have been read for many years by Jewish families during the Passover seder.

Hallelujah Psalms. These psalms have “hallelujah” either at the beginning, the end, or in both locations in the Psalm.

Royal Psalms. These are Psalms 93—99.

Psalms of the Sons of Korah. These are Psalms 42—49[21] and Psalms 84—85, 87—88.[22] These psalms of the Sons of Korah contain a variety of types. Often they take us to the highest levels of confidence, and these often are in the Zion psalms. In addition, they also take us to the lowest points of discouragement (Psalms 44, 48), and these are in the lament psalms.[23] The only wedding psalm we have comes from the Sons of Korah.

TITLES OF THE CHAPTERS IN THE PSALMS. These titles above each psalm are known as “superscriptions.” Much debate occurs about these superscriptions. Let’s explore that together.

Introduction. Providing a succinct summary of the superscriptions is difficult because of the amount of psalms (150 of them), the array of opinions, the arrangement of the prepositions used, and the textual evidence.[24]

Most of the 150 psalms have superscriptions and it appears that these superscriptions were one of the ways that the psalms were placed alongside each other and grouped into five different “books.” The superscriptions contain reference to music, persons, historical information, and numerous other classifications. One of the problems we have is that we often do not know what many of the terms in the superscriptions mean.

Historical Information. There is historical information that always occurs last in the superscriptions, but it only appears in psalms of David and only in thirteen of those psalms.[25] These extended notes not only mention David, but appear to attempt to locate and provide context to David’s life as it relates to the psalm.

There are various opinions about the historical parts of the superscriptions. Some people believe that all thirteen of these psalms were written by David. Some people believe that these thirteen psalms reflect traditions that were preserved by priests or written later. Some people believe these thirteen psalms contain interpretive suggestions made by scribes for understanding the psalms in light of other information available in 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel.

Occasions. While thirteen psalms refer to historical information specifically related to David’s life, there are some psalms that refer to other occasions. Examples of these other occasions are in Psalm 30 we read “A Psalm; a song at the Dedication of the House. A Psalm of David.” In Psalm 45 we read “A Song of Love” for a wedding of a king. In Psalm 92 we read “A Psalm, a Song for the Sabbath day.” In Psalm 100 we read “A Psalm of Thanksgiving.” In Psalm 102 we read “A Prayer of the Afflicted.”[26]

Classifications. We are not always sure of the meaning of various classifications of the psalms. Because of this, many English translations transliterate the Hebrew words into English words. Below I have provided some examples.

mizmor. Likely means “psalm.”
shir or sir. Likely means “song” and is used in Psalms 120–134 in the “Songs of Ascents” as a special category of “songs.”
maskil. This word appears to mean for “skilled playing” or for “giving understanding.” The root of this word relates to skill.[27] Some scholars say the psalms that contain this word are psalms that are “a contemplative poem.”[28]
tephillah. This word probably means “prayer” and is used in five psalms (Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, 142). These are all lament psalms.
tehillah. This word likely means “praise” and is used in only one psalm (Psalm 145).
miktam. The meaning of this word is uncertain, but it appears to come from a verb meaning “to cover” or “being overwhelmed.” How we apply that meaning to the psalms is uncertain.
shiggaion. This word only appears in Psalm 7 (and Hab 3:1). Based on the root it might describe wandering.[29] In a musical context, this word could describe a wide range of musical notes (such as wandering up and down a scale). Other guesses are that this word is connected with the idea of “fervor” or “passionate lament.”[30]

Musical Aspects. There are musical aspects in the psalms, but this only occurs in the superscriptions that say, “For the Choir Director.”

Some of these psalms say there are “stringed instruments” (Hebrew word, neginoth[31]) that accompanies the psalm. These are Psalms 4, 6, 54, 55, 61, 67, 76. Those psalms “are said to be accompanied ‘with’ or played ‘on’ stringed instruments.”[32] Psalm 5 refers to a “flute accompaniment” (Hebrew word, nechilot). Psalm 6 and Psalm 12 refer to a “an eight-string lyre” (Hebrew word, sheminith).

Some of the material in the superscriptions may refer to different musical styles from various cities and regions in the ancient Near East. Examples might be “Gittith” (Pss 8, 81, 84), “Jeduthun” (Pss 39, 67, 77), “Mahalath” (Pss 53), and “Mahalath Leannoth” (Pss 88).

Authors. Ninety of the psalms tell us their author. Here’s a brief breakdown and overview of the authors.

Seventy-three of the psalms are attributed to David. Psalm 90 is “A Prayer of Moses, the man of God.” Psalms 72 and 127 were psalms by Solomon.

Many psalms were written by Levite musicians (see 1 Chron 6:39; 15:17, 19; 2 Chron 5:12). Psalms 50, 73—83 came from Asaph. Psalm 88 “A Song. A Psalm of the sons of Korah. For the choir director; according to Mahalath Leannoth. A Maskil of Heman the Ezrahite.” Psalm 89 “A Maskil of Ethan the Ezrahite.”[33]

David. As I shared earlier, our English Bibles tell us seventy-three were written by David.

The Septuagint attributes eighty-five psalms to David compared to the Masoretic Text that says David wrote seventy-three psalms. A survey of the Dead Sea Scrolls reveals that the Qumran community believed David wrote “3600 psalms, 446 songs, and four additional songs for the side.”[34]

Scripture tells us in a variety of places about David writing, singing, and organizing musical material for the sanctuary (see 1 Chron 13:8; 15:3–28; 16:4–43; 23:1–5; 25; 2 Sam 6:5). We know from 1 Samuel 16:14–23 that David was skilled at music. In 2 Samuel 1 he appears to compose a psalm of lament over the death of Jonathan and Saul.

Fourteen psalms contain short bits of historical information about David’s life.

-Psalm 59 is connected with 1 Samuel 19:11.

-Psalm 56 is connected with 1 Samuel 21:10–15.

-Psalm 34 is connected with 1 Samuel 21:10—22:2.

-Psalm 52 is connected with 1 Samuel 22:9.

-Psalm 54 is connected with 1 Samuel 23:15–23.

-Psalm 7 is connected with 1 Samuel 23:24–29 (but there are some problems with this view).

-Psalm 57 could be related to the incident that occurred with Adullam (1 Sam 22:1–2).

-Psalm 142 also references David being in a cave and could refer to David’s experience with Adullam (1 Sam 22:1–2) or at En Gedi (1 Sam 24).

-Psalm 60 is from 2 Samuel 8:8, 13 and 1 Chronicles 18:9–12.

-Psalm 18 is almost identifical to 2 Samuel 22.

-Psalm 51 is based on David’s sin in 2 Samuel 11–12.

-Psalm 3 appears connected with 2 Samuel 15—18.

-Psalm 63 could be related to 2 Samuel 15:23.

-Psalm 30 might be connected with 1 Chronicles 21:1—22:1. Psalm 30 suggests David wrote it for the dedication of the temple after he sinned by numbering the people.

Asaph. King David appointed the prophet Asaph as chief musician (1 Chron 16:5, 7, 37; 25:2; 2 Chron 29:30; Neh 12:46). The descendants of Asaph resumed their duties after the exile (Ezra 2:41).

Sons of Korah. Korah led a rebellion (Num 16) and was swallowed up in an earthquake that God caused. Yet Korah’s sons survived (Num 26:11). They and their descendants served as Levites. The sons of Korah supported David while Saul was king (1 Chron 12:6). David appointed them as gate keepers of the temple (1 Chron 26:19). After the exile the sons of Korah again served in the same position (1 Chron 9:19).

People. I think it’s important to note that fifty-five of the psalms that are attributed to David, Asaph, or the sons of Korah, have the word “choir director” (NASB) as the first word (except for one psalm). The phrase, “choir director” comes from the Hebrew word (meh-nats-tsay-akh), and describes a person that was probably some type of “director of music” (as NIV translates it) or maybe a “master of ceremonies.” These fifty-five psalms are the only psalms that mention musical aspects.

With that said, the people mentioned in the superscriptions appear to be authors. The preposition used in the superscriptions is the Hebrew letter, lamed. This preposition can mean “by” or “for” or “about.” Thus a psalm that has “lamed David” in the superscription could be written by David, it could be written about David,[35] or it could be written or collected for David. It is possible that this phrase means different things in different psalms.[36]

As I’ve shared throughout, our English Bibles utilize the Masoretic Text as the primary basis for translation of the book of Psalms. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Greek translations put David’s name in more superscriptions than the Masoretic Text. This might reveal that the scribes had been adding these titles for a long time.

TYPES OF PSALMS.[37] In their book, The Essential Companion to the Psalms, Brian Webster and Greg Beach state, “The psalms are grouped into different types, called genres, based on the kinds of things they say, the emotional mood they invoke, and how they depict certain speakers, such as the whole community, or an individual, or perhaps the king.”[38]

The psalms are responses[39] to God’s earlier revelation. The psalms are expressions of the believer who has heard the prophetic word of God while living in a troubled society. With that in mind, most of the psalms convey this basic message: God is great, but life is tough.[40] This leads us to group the psalms into two major categories. One category is psalms of praise that declare, “God is great.” Another category is psalms of lament that declare, “life is tough.”

We must remember that these “types” and various “categories” are somewhat artificial. The ancient writers wrote creatively and at times would mix these categories.[41] By no means did a Psalm writer start out, “Today I plan to write an individual lament Psalm” or think, “This is going to be a messianic psalm.” Rather, these categories are identified based on common characteristics and elements of the psalms.

Lament. The basic idea of lament psalms is this: plea to God to intervene in a crisis. Some lament psalms are individual and some are communal. Allen Ross writes, “Lament psalms tell of a person’s or community’s lamenting in their distress as they turn to God for help. This kind of complaint is not like the grumbling and complaining of Israel in the wilderness. There they complained against God while speaking to each other with bad attitudes. In the laments the psalmists complain of their situation. And though freely expressing their disappointment with God, they are turning to him, not away.”[42]

The phrase, “life is tough,” describes lament psalms. In psalms of lament there are circumstances that lead the worshipper to cry out to God during a difficult and overwhelming situation. These psalms reveal that it’s not easy to live a life of faith in a culture and society that is perverse and twisted. Lament psalms are the most common type of Psalm.[43] These psalms contain a cry for help during distress.[44] By “lament” they describe a disappointment, sorrow, or grief. It’s been said that psalms of lament are like “prayers for help out of distress.”[45]

How we categorize the lament psalms is based on the number of the personal pronouns used. With that said, we have laments of the community (or laments of the people) as well as laments of the individual.

Laments of the Community (Laments of the People). These psalms have plural personal pronouns. They are also laments that are normally shorter than individual psalms. These psalms usually were uttered during a national crisis. In these psalms there often is a rehearsal of history between God and his people. These rehearsals often mention God’s mighty deeds done on behalf of his people. In these laments often the nation of Israel is faced with a difficulty and they approach God together with their lament. With that said, the destruction of the temple in 586 BC appears to be the occasion of Psalms 74, 79, and 137. Psalms commonly identified as laments of the community are Psalms 44, 60, 74, 79, 80, 83, 85, 90, 123, 137.

Laments of the Individual. These psalms have a singular pronoun. Psalms commonly identified as psalms of laments of the individual are: Psalms 3, 5, 6, 7, 13, 17, 25, 26, 28, 31, 35, 38, 39, 42, 43, 51, 54, 55, 57, 59, 61, 64, 69, 70, 71, 86, 88, 102, 109, 120, 130, 140, 143. Other possible laments of the individual could be Psalms 22, 36, 63. Psalms of individual lament have been placed into even more specific categories.

A subgroup of individual lament psalms are known as “Prayers of the Accused.” In these psalms false accusations have been made against the psalmist. In response, the psalmist pleads for vindication from these accusations. Here’s an example, “Vindicate me, O God, and plead my case against an ungodly nation; O deliver me from the deceitful and unjust man!” (Psalm 43:1, NASB). The following psalms are sometimes classified as psalms of the accused: Psalms 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 17, 25—27, 31, 35, 41—42, 43, 52, 54—59, 77, 86, 94, 102, 109, 139—140, 142.

Another subgroup of individual lament psalms is known as “Psalms of Illness.” In these psalms there is a description of an illness of the psalmist. In these psalms the writer laments about a physical condition (Pss 102:3) and prays for healing from that illness (Pss 6:2). The following psalms are sometimes classified as psalms of illness: Psalms 6, 13, 38, 39, 69, 88, 102.

Patterns and Elements of Lament Psalms. The patterns we find in the many lament psalms often alter depending on each lament psalm. The lament psalm does not necessarily have all the elements listed below, and the order may also vary.

According to Ron Allen, lament psalms often have six elements. 1. Introductory appeal. 2. Lament. 3. Confession of trust. 4. Petition. 5. Motifs that justify divine intervention. 6. Vow of praise or shout of praise. Some lament psalms also have a seventh element: the prophetic utterance.[46]

According to Brian Webster and Greg Beach, lament psalms have eleven elements. 1. Initial appeal to be heard. 2. Lament over distress. 3. Accusation against enemies. 4. Complaint against God. 5. Claim of innocence or loyalty. 6. Confession of sin. 7. Petition. 8. Imprecation. 9. Motivation to answer. 10. Statement of confidence. 11. Vow to praise God.[47]

Wisdom. The psalms of wisdom overlap with the psalms of praise, but have a special emphasis on understanding. Psalms of wisdom often have themes prominent in other books of poetry such as Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. Most psalms of wisdom contain some type of “instruction” for the people to praise God, but in addition to that, some psalms have a predominant theme of “instruction” or “wisdom.”

This type of psalm arose out of the way some Psalm writers referred to their psalms as “wisdom” (Pss 37:30), “proverb” (Prov 49:3, 4), “instruction” (Pss 78:1), “law” (Pss 94:12), and “parable” (Pss 78:2). Some scholars call these psalms “instructional” psalms or “Torah” psalms (see Pss 1, 19, 119). Some scholars see a subcategory of “wisdom” psalms being “Torah” psalms. Some features of wisdom psalms are seen in “better” statements (Pss 119:72), blessing formulas (Pss 1:1), emphasis on Law (Pss 119), contracts between righteous and wicked (Pss 1:6; 49), and advice for sons (Pss 34:11).

While most psalms in the book of psalms do contain wisdom and instruction, some psalms predominantly address people in a way that conveys wisdom for instruction like the book of Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes. However, often the wisdom and instructional psalms are mixed into other categories of the psalms. These psalms likely are wisdom psalms: Psalms 1, 10, 12, 15, 19, 32, 34, 36, 49, 50, 52, 53, 73, 78, 82, 91, 92, 94, 111, 112, 119, 119, 127, 128, 139.

Messianic. The messianic psalms are perhaps the most famous type of psalms in the American church. Messianic psalms point forward in hope to Israel’s coming Messiah. This Messiah would be a descendant of David and his divine rule would fulfill many of God’s promises. In essence, Messianic psalms refer to the Messiah and the hope he brings. Most scholars see the following psalms as Messianic psalms: Psalms 2, 8, 16, 22-24, 40-41, 45, 68-69, 72, 89, 102, 110, 118.

Pilgrim. These psalms were sung while the Jews were traveling to Jerusalem for the national feast days. These are also called psalms of ascent. These pilgrim psalms also often have the phrase, “A Song of Ascents,” in the superscription (see Pss 120—134). Most scholars believe these psalms refer to Israel going up to Jerusalem. Likely, this was for the three annual festivals that Jews traveled to Jerusalem to observe: Passover, Pentecost, Booths. See Exod 23:17; 1 Sam 1:3; Pss 42:4; 122:4; Isa 36:29. Most scholars see Psalms 120—134 as pilgrim psalms.

Entrance Liturgies. These psalms open with a question about who may enter the temple. Next there is an answer (possibly from a priest) about requirements for who may enter. The psalm then concludes with an affirmation or blessing on those who are qualified to enter the temple.[48] Psalms 15 and Psalm 24 follow that structure closely. Psalm 92, Psalm 100, and Psalm 118 have similar characteristics but don’t follow the structure as closely.[49]

Liturgy. A liturgy psalm contains roles for several different speakers. In other words, there will be several speakers or speaking voices that appear in the psalm. This might be individual persons such as a priest, the king, a prophet, a worshipper, and enemy, or even God. This might be groups such as priests, pilgrims approaching Jerusalem, pilgrims leaving Jerusalem, gatekeepers, or the assembled community.[50] Sometimes Psalm 118 is considered a liturgy psalm. Because of these elements, liturgy psalms often “have a deliberate interplay between two or more of these voices.”[51]

Thanksgiving. Psalms of thanksgiving can be personal or corporate. They express gratitude for God’s blessing and work in the life of the author or community. These psalms give credit to God for what God has done in that person’s life.[52] These psalms thank God for deliverance from distress.[53] Psalms of thanksgiving—like psalms of lament—can be categorized into different groups based on the number of the personal pronouns. Psalms that use “I” or “me” (singular personal pronoun) are called individual thanksgiving psalms. Psalms that use “we” or “us” (plural personal pronoun) are called community thanksgiving psalms. Some psalms have both because there is a leader (“I” or “me” or “my”) as well as an assembled people (“we” or “us” or “our”). Psalm 118 is likely a psalm of Thanksgiving.

Praise. The psalms of praise are hymns of celebration and joy that are sometimes expressed as responses to God’s character or actions. These psalms talk excitedly about God and thank him. Examples of praise psalms are Psalm 8, 19, 29, 30, 33, most of 36-51, 100, 113-118, 120-136, 140-150. As you probably can guess, there are different praise psalms.

Descriptive Praise. These psalms describe the praise of God. As Ron Allen writes, “The psalmist exalts in the person of God, his sublime attributes, the glory of his name.”[54]
Declarative Praise. These psalms declare the praise of God. In declarative praise psalms “the emphasis is on what God has done for his people.[55]
Patterns and Elements of Praise Psalms. The pattern of praise psalms is very simple. They begin with a call to praise then tell the reason for that praise.[56] Another pattern is taught by Webster and Beach who say that psalms of praise have three elements: call to praise,[57] motivations to praise,[58] and praise itself.[59] Songs of praise sometimes have all three elements, but not always in a consistent proportion among different praise psalms. However, not all praise psalms have all three elements, some have two elements or just one element.

Royal. A royal psalm involves the king. In royal psalms often the king is described in the “foreground.”[60] Because royal psalms involve the king, royal psalms can sometimes be included in other categories because the king may be the speaker/writer of a praise song, a thanksgiving song, a lament psalm, etc.

However, some of the royal psalms are only classified as royal psalms. Some royal psalms are only about the king. These might be a psalm focused on God’s covenant with David, a prayer for the king made by the people, a king’s coronation, or even a royal wedding.

Not everyone agrees on royal psalms as a category because not everyone agrees that a king is the speaker. Some scholars only label royal psalms as those that specifically mention “king” or “David” or “anointed.” Some scholars do not require those terms and have expanded the list.[61] Often the royal psalms refer to a high point in the king’s career such as coronation (Pss 2), wedding (Pss 45), or heading into battle (Pss 20; 144). Other examples of royal psalms are Psalm 89 as it relates to the Davidic covenant, Psalm 110 with the king’s coming conquest, and Psalm 72 which describes the king’s glorious reign.

Alphabetical. Several psalms are acrostic. In alphabetical psalms each verse or section begins with a different letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Psalm 119 is the most famous alphabetical psalm, but others are Psalms 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 110, 112, 119, 145.

Enthronement Psalms. These psalms commonly have the phrases: “the Lord reigns” (Pss 93, 96—97, 99), “the Lord is a great God and a great King” (Pss 95; 47) or “he is coming to judge” (Pss 98). These psalms anticipate something dramatic happening. Some scholars see these psalms connected to the themes of the coming Messiah and the messianic Kingdom.

Confidence. These psalms speak of confidence in the Lord’s care and protection. Some believe that psalms of lament morphed into psalms of confidence because psalms of lament usually have a statement of confidence. Psalms of confidence are similar to thanksgiving psalms, but are slightly different. Psalms of thanksgiving tell a story from the past. A psalm of confidence projects confidence into the future. There usually are three elements of confidence psalms: 1. Petition. 2. Reference to enemies or difficulties. 3. Affirmations of loyalty.[62]

Imprecatory. These are often psalms of “prayer” that can be called “oracles of judgment.” In these psalms the author prays for God’s justice to prevail on earth. These are prayers that enemies (nations or individual people) would be overthrown. These psalms are often labeled as imprecatory psalms: Psalms 7, 35, 52, 48, 49, 59, 83, 109.

History and Law. These psalms are less popular in our modern church. Psalms of history and law remember past events and reflect on God’s laws. This provides assurance of God’s faithfulness, protection, and provision.

HEBREW POETRY. Hebrew poetry is not about rhyme of sound, but instead about rhyme of thought.^[63] Let’s examine the different aspects of Hebrew poetry.

Parallelism. Hebrew poetry consists of “parallelism” in which lines of controlled length normally work together in sets called “bicolon” (2 lines) or “tricolon” (3 lines). The lines normally work together thematically and harmonize with each other.[64] (There also is cadence and wordplay that occurs in Hebrew poetry, but that’s largely lost in English translations.) Parallelism is a “statement and restatement of the same basic truth in different words with great art, style, and imagery.”[65] All of this is done with structure and symmetry. Charles Ryrie explains, “Unlike much of Western poetry, Hebrew poetry is not based on rhyme or meter, but on rhythm and parallelism. The rhythm is not achieved by balanced numbers of accented and unaccented syllables, but by tonal stress or accent on important words.”[66]

Some scholars have even distinguished between “internal” parallelism and “external” parallelism. Allen Ross explains, “Parallelism describes the relationship of expressions within verses (internal parallelism); at times it also reflects the relationships between verses (external parallelism).”[67]

Poetry (in general) is intended to communicate experience. It’s not (primarily) about rhyme, rhythm, or pretty words. Literature conveys experience and poetry is the most powerful way to convey experience. Rhyme and rhythm are the most common elements of English poetry, but they are almost completely absent in Hebrew poetry.

Experience. Above all, Hebrew poetry is designed to convey an experience.[68] It might have a message, but that message comes from the experience which is the original purpose of the Hebrew poetry.[69] Poets in general often want us to “feel” and that is true with Hebrew poetry as well.[70] This does not imply that Hebrew poetry has no message, it just reminds us that the message comes through the vehicle of experience. That is, the experience of the author that he wants us to feel with him.[71]

Lyric Poetry. Hebrew poetry is what is called “lyric poetry.” It’s different from other literary forms. Lyric poetry has a concentrated form of discourse with conscious use of artistic elements. The concentrated form of discourse occurs through images, emotional language, symbols, figures, and multiple meanings. The book of Psalms is the largest collection of ancient lyrical poetry.[72] This type of poetry expresses the emotions of the poet.

Imagery in Poetry. The imagery of the psalms is often earthly because the Israelites were farmers and shepherds living in the countryside in nature. The imagery of the psalms is also militaristic because the Israelites were involved in conquering the land and defending their land. Old Testament scholar Allen Ross writes, “Evocative language used in poetic discourse enabled the psalmists to convey several things at the same time. Because the truth was presented in word pictures, it evoked in the reader the feelings that the poet had when he wrote the lines; it excited in the reader the emotional significance of the words as well as their intellectual meanings. For example, the poet could picture the vitality and stability of a godly person through the image of a tree planted by water, or the fear of the fainthearted through the image of melting wax, or the verbal attacks of the wicked through the imagery of swords and arrows. So an exposition of the Psalms must be sensitive to such images in order to appreciate both the intellectual and the emotional meanings of the poetry. In a word, the Psalms must be treated as religious lyrical poetry.”[73]

With that said, the book of Psalms contains expressions of the emotions of Israel’s faithful God followers who feel joy, fear, doubt, frustration, and hope.

Poetic Devices in the Psalms. The palms are artistic and contain artistic forms such as patterns, harmony, balance, unity, design, and variation. The meaning of the content of the psalms was revealed in the authors’ imagination and creativity.[74]

While parallelism is the primary poetic device of Hebrew, there are various other stylistic and literary devices. Among these are alliteration, assonance, paronomasia, and onomatopoeia. Sadly, many of these elements are lost in translation from Hebrew to English. However, a good study Bible and Bible commentary should bring out these elements for you. Be on the lookout for words like simile, chiasm, metaphor, inclusion, metonymy, apostrophe, and synecdoche. Again, a good commentary or study Bible will help you understand those literary devices.

What Is Hebrew Parallelism? It’s worth reviewing what Hebrew parallelism is.“Parallelism is one statement followed by another, done with art, style, and image. This is, by saying the same thing in slightly different words, the total impression is enhanced beyond saying either line alone.”[75] Or we could define Hebrew parallelism as “the repetition of meaning in parallel expressions.”[76]

The Benefits of Hebrew Parallelism. The amazing thing about Hebrew parallelism is that it does not get lost in translation. This is because the translation from Hebrew into English is based on parallel “ideas” and “thoughts.” It’s relatively easy to transfer the sense of Hebrew into English. If Hebrew poetry was primarily based on rhyme or rhythm, then much would be lost. But, because it is based on parallel ideas it is relatively easy to transfer that rhyme of “ideas” into English.

I agree with Ron Allen who writes, “Since parallelism, or stereometrics, is the essential genius of Hebrew poetry, it is especially providential that this is the very thing that does not get lost in translation. Were Hebrew poetry based on rhyme and regular metrical patterns, translation into the major languages of the world would be stilted and imprecise because of the difficulties of rendering such poetry into the receiving or target language idiom.”[77]

Types of Hebrew Parallelism. Now that we know about Hebrew parallelism, lets examine the types.

Synonymous (Iterative) Parallelism (Pss 2:3; 46:7; 103:6). In synonymous (iterative) parallelism the second line restates some or all of the first line in different words/images. “Synonymous parallelism describes the closest similarity between each of the two consecutive lines. A term or unit of thought in one part is paralleled by an equivalent term or unit of thought in the other.”[78] Another way to explain synonymous parallelism is that the first line is echoed in the second line with a slight change of terms. Here are some examples of synonymous (iterative) parallelism.

“Why are the nations in an uproar
And the peoples devising a vain thing?” ~ Psalm 2:1

“O Lord, how my adversaries have increased!
Many are rising up against me.” ~ Psalm 3:1

Antithetic (Contrastive) Parallelism (Pss 1:6; 13:9; Prov 27:6). In antithetic (contrastive) parallelism the second line affirms the truth of the first line in an opposite way. In other words, the second line stands in contrast to the first line. “Antithetical parallelism balances the parallel elements through the opposition or contrast of thoughts.”[79] Here are a few examples.

“For the Lord knows the way of the righteous,
But the way of the wicked will perish.” ~ Psalm 1:6

“How blessed is the man who has made the Lord his trust,
And [how blessed is the man who] has not turned to the proud, nor to those who lapse into falsehood.”~Ps 4:4

Climatic Parallelism. In climatic parallelism the second line repeats part of the first line exactly and then adds a conclusion (Pss 22:4; 96:7).[80] This is also called “step parallelism.” These are rare.

“Ascribe to the Lord, O sons of the mighty,
Ascribe to the Lord [O sons of the mighty] glory and strength.” ~ Pss 29:1

Synthetic (Completive) Parallelism (Pss 2:6; 104:27). In synthetic (completive) parallelism the second line completes something introduced in the first line. The second line repeats the thought of the first line and then adds a conclusion.

“Come, let us worship and bow down,
Let us kneel before the Lord our Maker.” ~ Psalm 95:6

Emblematic Parallelism. Allen Ross writes, “Emblematic parallelism occurs when one of the parallel units is a metaphorical illumination of the other.”[81]

Seeing the Psalms as Poetry and Identifying Parallelism. Many readers are greatly helped by the “typesetting” done by most modern translations such as the NASB, NIV, NLT, ESV, etc. These translators have placed the text into lines that help us recognize the text is poetry and allow us to see the parallel lines so that we may interpret them.

While this might seem elementary, we must note that the KJV was published in 1611, but the identification of Hebrew parallelism did not occur until Bishop Robert Lowth discovered Hebrew poetry in 1753. This means the KJV does not show us the parallelism in the psalms.

Further Development of Parallelism. In addition to what I’ve shared above, scholars have advanced other aspects of Hebrew poetry related to parallelism. While not as prominent and sometimes less apparent in the English text, here are a few other elements of the poetry of Hebrew.[82]

Grammatical Aspect. This looks at the syntax of poetic lines and how pronouns, nouns, verbs, etc., work together in parallelism.
Lexical Aspect. This relates to the pairing of terms in parallel lines. There are at least two groups of lexical aspect. One group is called “paradigmatic pairing” which is when words of the same class are paired together. Examples are heaven/earth, day/night, righteous/wicked, good/bad, woman/man. Another group is called “syntagmatic pairing” which are forms of hendiadys (loyalty/truth) or merisms (heavens/earth),
Phonological Aspect. This deals with sound pairs in parallel lines. See Psalm 122:7 with shalom meaning “peace” and shalow meaning “prosperity”.

THEMES IN THE PSALMS. In addition to the technique of Hebrew poetry—and the types (or categories) of psalms—which we have already examined, we can now also evaluate the content of the Psalms. “The book of Psalms contains much more than fancy poetry and songs of praise, as it truly reflects deep theological truth!”[83]

As you can imagine, a book that has 150 chapters covers a vast array of theological concepts. Below are a few of the most common themes that I have noticed in the psalms.

God will establish his just rule of the universe. Many of the psalms express a belief that the Lord sovereignly rules the universe and will establish his rule on the earth through his people.[84] Even when—and especially when—in difficult situations or among wicked people, the psalmist writers expected God to intervene and set things right.

Expectation of fellowship with God in the afterlife. This is often seen in mentions of “Sheol” in the psalms. See Psalms 16—17, 47, 73 for examples.

God as king. Over any other earthly ruler, above other gods, and in every situation, God is still king. The psalms teach us that God is a warrior (Pss 18:7—15; 24:7—10) as well as a judge (Pss 9:7; 105:7).

God is a safe place of refuge. A survey of the different metaphors in the psalms makes it clear God is a safe place of refuge. These metaphors include God as a “rock,” as a place we can rest under his “wings,” or God as a “shield” to protect us.

Monotheism (Pss 81—83, 86).

Creation (Pss 8, 19, 139).

Sin and the Fall (Pss 19, 51, 66).

God’s Covenant (Pss 25, 78, 89, 105).

Future Hope (Pss 22, 24, 51, 78).

Worship. According to Thomas Constable, “the subject of the Book of Psalms is worship. Worship is the act of offering to God what is due to Him because of who He is.”[85]

PSALMS AREN’T ONLY IN THE BOOK OF PSALMS. A survey of Scripture reveals that psalms are not only found in the book of Psalms. As we carefully read our Old Testament we notice a Psalm of Hannah (1 Sam 2:1–10), a Song of Deborah (Judges 5:1–31), a Psalm of Isaiah (Isa 12:1–6 which is often called a “Millennial Psalm”), as well as psalms in Daniel 2 and Jonah 2. Other examples would be the Song of Moses (Exod 15:1–18; Deut 32:1–43) and the Song of Miriam (Exod 15:21).

USE OF PSALMS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. “The early church made extensive use of the Psalter, quoting or alluding to it more than any other OT work.”[86] The psalms were used for New Testament worship, but also for interpreting the person and work of Jesus Christ. In this way we see repeated references of Psalms 2, 22, 69, 110, and 118. These psalms help New Testament writers interpret who Jesus was and what Jesus did.

The United Bible societies (UBS) 4th edition lists more than 400 quotations from the psalms in the New Testament. These quotations are of both phrases and complete verses. These 400 quotations are in contrast to the second most quoted book of the Old Testament, Isaiah, with forty-seven quotations. It’s estimated that the New Testament quotes from thirty-five different psalms.

USE OF PSALMS IN THE EARLY CHURCH. The psalms were often used in the early church to teach people about worship and how to pray. In this way, the psalms taught the early church how to give glory to God through song.[87]

USE OF PSALMS IN THE CONTEMPORARY AND CURRENT CHURCH. Many churches have set the psalms to music and use them in their worship. “Personalizing the Psalms involves several conversations: with self, with Scripture, with community, and with God.”[88]

APPLICATION OF THE PSALMS.

I am driven to my knees and I worship God. This is because of his power, goodness, grace, and mercy. “In both good and bad days, we’re called as believers to worship our faithful God, and the wide variety of psalms present us with many different ways to approach God today.”[89]
I find ways to use the psalms in my daily life. Jesus’s last words in Matthew 27:46 and Luke 23:46 both quote from the Psalms (Psalm 21:1 and Psalm 31:5). What dire and difficult circumstances are you in and what psalm might you be able to quote to help you? The psalms provide comfort to us in our darkest times in life.

MISCELANOUS QUOTES ON THE PSALMS.

“No doubt the prayers in the Psalter also found widespread use by those who came to pray for forgiveness, healing, protection, deliverance, and comfort, as they have throughout the history of the church.”[90]

“When the Scriptures call believers to praise God, they are calling them to enjoy God and His benefits. And when God blesses someone, that fact is to be shared in the congregation so that all may enter into the praise and enjoy God and His benefits.”[91]

“Selâh, found within many psalms but not in their headings, may indicate when the worshipers were to ‘lift up’ their voices (perhaps selâh is related to sālal, ‘to lift up or elevate’). It is used 71 times in the psalms. Selâh was not originally in the psalms; it was added later. Even so, it is quite ancient.”^[92]

“Believing people over the centuries have turned to the book of Psalms for comfort, for encouragement, and for patterns in the expression of joy.” ~ Ronald Allen[93]

“No guide to worship, both personal and public, is so fine as The Book of Psalms.”[94]

“Of all the books in the Old Testament, the Book of Psalms is the one most loved by the family of God. Within the Psalms we find expression to our deepest thoughts of reverence for God, our most excited joy in knowing Him, and our darkest terror in those moments we feel cut off from Him. In the Psalms we have it all: music, wisdom, beauty, truth, theology, experience, emotion, and expression. In the Psalms we have the Lord Jesus in bold prophecy and in subtle types. Most of all, in the Psalms we have the praise of God.”[95]

“The Psalms are the most treasured part of Israel’s literary gifts to the church. No part of the Old Testament is easier to approach for the Christian reader than the Psalter.”[96]

“Much like flakes of snow, the Psalms display great individuality. Each has been crafted lovingly by a master of design.”[97]

“The Book of Psalms exists as God’s provision to teach us how to praise his name. In the book we learn spontaneity, specificity, intensity, and sincerity in praise. There are few things the modern church needs more.”[98]

“Of all the books in the Old Testament the Book of Psalms most vividly represents the faith of individuals in the Lord. The Psalms are the inspired responses of human hearts to God’s revelation of Himself in law, history, and prophecy. Saints of all ages have appropriated this collection of prayers and praises in their public worship and private meditations.”^[99]

“Because the Psalms formed the ‘hymnal’ of the temple, they often celebrate the ordinances of the sanctuary and exult in the privilege of drawing near to God in His holy mountain. This aspect of the psalms, combined with their display of personal religious feelings, makes them the most powerful and complete expression of the worship of ancient Israel. Set in the form of lyric poetry, they became unforgettable.”^[100]

“The Psalms reveal that the Israelites were an intensely religious people, worshipers of God with a strong sense of right and wrong. Regarding themselves as God’s covenant people, they opposed wickedness and unbelief. Their daily activities, their national celebrations, and their military activities were carried out with religious commitment. The fact that the songs reflect this commitment makes them all the more serviceable for the edification of the entire household of faith.”^[101]

“The psalms. Their hymns lead us in praising God. Their laments unleash our cries for help. Their royal ceremonies and songs of Zion assert God’s order. Still other psalms lead us to reflect on God’s Word or call us to righteous character.”[102]

“While we feel welcome visiting with the psalmists, we are sometimes well aware that we are visitors. They speak of geography that we have not visited, countries no longer on the map, and weapons from the wars of days gone by. We live with different political structures and social institutions. Certain turns of phrase are understandable but have a foreign ring. Nevertheless, the psalms still speak powerfully to us with a timeless essence and an open invitation.”[103]

“Many psalms are cries to God for help and deliverance. They are prayers set in the form of poetry. They are personal, filled with anxieties of real hardships, but often stated in generalized terms so that others can say the same words while reflecting on their own personal crises.”[104]

“Our Hymnal: Sermons from the Psalms”

Here are links to the various sermons I’ve preached from the book psalms.

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Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

[1] Allen Ross, “Psalms,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 1 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 782.

[2] Much of the material which follows is adapted from C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, rev. ed. (Chicago, IL: Moody, 1988), 131.

[3] Brian Webster and David Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 29.

[4] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 778.

[5] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 778.

[6] W. D. Tucker Jr., “Book of Psalms 1,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings, ed. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 580.

[7] Thomas Constable, Notes on the Psalms, p. 5.

[8] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1,” Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 530.

[9] Constable, Notes on the Psalms, p. 6.

[10] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[11] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 783–84.

[12] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 589–590.

[13] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 589–590.

[14] Constable, Notes on the Psalms, p. 17.

[15] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 783.

[16] Yahweh is the Israelite concept of God and of his working in history. It is used when the characteristics of God are clear and concrete. It suggests that God is personal and stands in relationship with people (TDOT, vol. 1, p. 284). Gen 2:4; Exod 3:13-15.

Elohim is used when referring to the abstract idea of the deity, universal God, creator of the world. It is used to describe God as more abstract and obscure. It further describes the transcendent nature of God (TDOT, vol. 1, p. 284).

[17] This name of God, “Yahweh” has been previously misunderstood to be “Jehovah,” (Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20).

[18] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[19] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20–21.

[20] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 104

[21] These psalms like to use the title of God, Elohim.

[22] These psalms like to use the divine name, Yahweh.

[23] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[24] Another way to say this is that the amount psalms, the obscurity of the use of the preposition, the unique words used, and the varying textual evidence makes this one of the most difficult elements in the study of psalms.

[25] These are Psalms 3, 17, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142.

[26] Again, I’m using the NASB for these superscriptions as I have throughout.

[27] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[28] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[29] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[30] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[31] Say as “neh-gee-note”

[32] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[33] See 1 Kings 4:31.

[34] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 579.

[35] Some psalms could have been written about the Davidic line.

[36] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 18.

[37] Various descriptions of the psalms have been adapted and altered from the descriptions in Brian L. Webster and David R. Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 16–18; Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 138–39; Allen, And I Will Praise Him, 28–40; Ross, BKC, 785–88; Ken Hanna, From Moses to Malachi, 281-287.

[38] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 15.

[39] “The Psalms generally do not center on new revelation, but rather on responses to earlier revelation. That is, the Psalms basically are the expressions of the believer who has heard the sure prophetic Word of God but who lives in the troubled cauldron of society. His responses are often two twofold: God is great, but life is tough!” (Allen, I Will Praise Him, 95). With that said, Allen continues: “It would be a mistake to press this distinction too far, of course. For in fact there are many Psalms in which there are new revelations, and there are several Psalms in which there are specific predictive prophecies. Yet viewed broadly, it is the primary function of the Psalms to respond to God, not to reveal new truth. It is quite important to assert at this point that the responses of the Psalms are inspired; they are in accord with reality, and they are consequent with truth in God” (p. 95).

[40] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 95.

[41] Brian L. Webster and David R. Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 15.

[42] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[43] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 16.

[44] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 16.

[45] Ross, Bible Knowledge Commentary, 785.

[46] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 35.

[47] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[48] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 585.

[49] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 585.

[50] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[51] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 18.

[52] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 16.

[53] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 584.

[54] Ronald B. Allen, And I Will Praise Him (Nashville: 1992), 30.

[55] Ronald B. Allen, And I Will Praise Him (Nashville: 1992), 30.

[56] Ronald B. Allen, And I Will Praise Him (Nashville: 1992), 30.

[57] This element invites and instructs others to give praise to the Lord.

[58] In this section the psalmist provides the reasons or motives to give praise to God.

[59] Webster and Beach, Psalms Bible Companion, 16.

[60] Ross, Bible Knowledge, Commentary, 786.

[61] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[62] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

^[63]“Reading Hebrew poetry demands that the interpreter pay as much attention to the literary and aesthetic nature of the text as to the semantic range of individual words.” W. D. Tucker Jr., “Book of Psalms 1,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings, ed. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 585.

[64] Brian Webster, The Cambridge Introduction to Biblical Hebrew, 296

[65] Mark Bailey, Bible Study Methods and Hermeneutics, BE101, DTS.

[66] Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Ryrie Study Bible: New American Standard Bible, 1995 Update, Expanded ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1995), 830.

[67] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[68] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 45.

[69] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 45.

[70] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 46.

[71] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 47.

[72] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 779.

[73] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[74] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[75] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 51.

[76] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[77] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 54.

[78] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[79] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[80] Leland Ryken, Sweeter than Honey, Richer Than God, 70–73.

[81] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[82] In addition to what I list below, some scholars also describe a “semantic aspect.”

[83] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 138.

[84] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 788.

[85] Constable, p. 18.

[86] Tucker, “Psalms 1: Book of”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 592.

[87] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 139.

[88] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 25.

[89] Kreider, Svigel, and Yarbrough, Exploring Christian Scripture, 139.

[90] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 787.

[91] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 787.

^[92] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 782.

[93] Ronald Allen, “Suffering in the Psalms and Wisdom Books” in Why, O God? Suffering and Disability in the Bible and the Church, ed. Larry Watters and Roy Zuck(Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2011), 137.

[94] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 11.

[95] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 17.

[96] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 18.

[97] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 26.

[98] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 26.

^[99] Ross, “Psalms,” The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 778–779.

^[100] Ross, “Psalms,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

^[101] Ross, “Psalms,” The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[102] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 11.

[103] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 11.

[104] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 14.