Christopher L. Scott

Some of the Bible’s most beautiful literature is contained within the book of Psalms. These psalms share the deepest emotions of people who have believed in God and sought him in the “ups and downs” of life. The psalms bring joy and comfort to believers through both laments and heartfelt writings as well as the praise and joy of our Lord.

BIG IDEA: The book of Psalms is about a faithful and loving God. It reveals to us that we must have obedience to follow him. The book of Psalms is a reflection that God is good, life lived in faith following God is hard, yet he supports us.

AUTHORS.

Authors of the Different Psalms. The book of psalms was written by a diverse group of authors spanning many centuries (almost a millennium, in fact). As noted in this article, much debate occurs around the meaning of the Hebrew preposition, lamed. The use of lamed to label someone as an author has been attested in Northwest Semitic inscriptions, in other Semitic dialects which are similar to Hebrew (such as Arabic), and other biblical passages too (see Hab 3:1).[1] However, because that preposition, lamed, is used in a variety of ways, it’s wise to use internal evidence of each Psalm to evaluate the use of the preposition.

New Testament Writers’ View of the Author of the Psalms. We must not forget (especially among the voices of critical scholars) that Christ and his apostles followed the headings of each psalm as evidence for who wrote the psalms. I believe it would be wise for us to do the same! Based on those headings, here’s the breakdown of psalms written by different authors: David (73), Solomon (2), Sons of Korah (12), Asaph (12), Heman (1), and Ethan (1).

DATES WHEN THE PSALMS WERE WRITTEN. The psalms were written from the time of Moses through the return from exile. Various psalms, based on their content, are post-exilic.

            We can broadly date some of the psalms based on who wrote them. Here’s a quick sample. The earliest psalm was probably Psalm 90, which was written by Moses, in about 1406 BC. The psalms that David likely wrote were composed between 1020 BC and 975 BC. The psalms of Asaph, a contemporary to David, likely were written during similar dates as David. Solomon likely composed his psalms in about 950 BC. The psalms attributed to Kora’s descendants, Heman and Ethan, were probably composed after Solomon. Some believe Heman and Ethan were connected with Ezra as Esrahites, so we could connect them to around the time of Ezra in 458 BC.

            With that said, the psalms cover a period of time of roughly 1000 years.

THE BOOK OF PSALMS AND THE RELIGIOUS CALENDAR IN ISRAEL. If we are going to understand the psalms correctly, we must know about the religious calendar in Israel. The festivals and feasts of Israel often are described with different names. I’ve included the various titles in my explanations below.

• Passover and Unleavened Bread. This occurred in the spring.
• Weeks or Pentecost. It was also called “first fruits” and occurred in early summer.
• Atonement and Tabernacles. This occurred in the fall.

These three great annual festivals are described in Exodus 23:14-19 and Leviticus 23:4–44. At these festivals people traveled to Jerusalem and celebrated God’s blessings and harvest. During these festivals people likely were involved in the temple rituals and probably used the psalms as part of their praise at the various temple festivals.

TITLES OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS. As we talk about the various “titles” of the book of Psalms found in the different ancient Near Eastern languages, we need to remember that these are “transliterations.” A transliteration is when the Hebrew, Greek, Syriac, Arabic, etc. word is simply spelled into English letters.

            When we read “The Psalms” in our English Bible, we must remember that title arrives through the doorway of both the Greek and Latin versions of the Old Testament.[2]  

Greek. Let’s survey the available Greek manuscripts and what they reveal about the title of the book of Psalms.

The Septuagint (also known as the LXX) used the Greek word, psalmos, as a rendering of the Hebrew word, mizmor. That Greek word, psalmos, and Hebrew word, mizmor, mean “psalm” and are a possible reference to an instrumental accompaniment.[3]

            The Vatican Greek manuscript, known as “Codex Vaticanus,” is a fourth century AD manuscript and has the title, psalmoi, which is translated as “Psalms.” This title appears to be what is used in the Gospel of Luke by Jesus (Luke 20:42) and again by Luke when he quotes Peter (Acts 1:20). Codex Vaticanus also has the subtitle, biblios psalmoi which is translated as “Book of Psalms.”

            The Alexandrinus Greek manuscript, known as “Codex Alexandrinus,” is a fifth century AD manuscript of the Old Testament that has a different title for the psalms. Codex Alexandrinus has the title as psalterion, which means a stringed instrument. That word, psalterion, is likely the Greek translation of the Hebrew word, mizmor, which probably describes music accompanied by stringed instruments.

Hebrew. Next let’s look at the various Hebrew manuscripts of the book of Psalms and what they reveal to us about the title.

            Most Hebrew manuscripts have the title, seper tehillim, which is translated as “Book of Praises.” The word, tehillim, is the plural form of the word tehillah which means “praise” and is used in the superscription of Psalm 145. This title, seper tehillim, appears to be a title describing content and not a title describing form.[4]Yet, some scholars believe tehillim is a technical term for the book because we would expect the plural form of tehillah to be tehillot.

            With that said, in the earliest Hebrew manuscripts (known as Codex Aleppo and Codex Leningradensis) there is no title for the book of Psalms.

Conclusion. With that survey of the history and influence of the Septuagint within Christianity, the Greek word psalmos (“a song of praise”) became the catchall phrase used as the title of these 150 chapters. However, as a title it appears to be used without the emphasis on stringed instruments. It appears, based on most scholars’ best guess, that because mizmor is used in the title of fifty-seven of the psalms, that the Greek translators used the translation of mizmor as the title of the entire collection.[5]

THE TEXT OF THE PSALMS. There are at least three “text types” that we should use as part of our translation and interpretation of the psalms.

Masoretic Text (MT). The Masoretic text represents the superior text for several reasons. First, it’s in Hebrew which was the original language the psalms were written in. Second, often the Masoretic text has readings that are archaic, difficult, and rare, all of which suggest originality. The Masoretic text of the psalms is based on Codex Leningradensis. You will often see the Masoretic text abbreviated as “MT.”

Greek Septuagint (LXX). The Septuagint represents a different and often considered inferior textual tradition than the MT. It appears that in many locations the Septuagint translators struggled with awkward readings in the Masoretic text, so they smoothed out the Masoretic text when they translated it into Greek. With that said, Jerome and many translators in the past several centuries have heavily relied on the Septuagint for their translations. You will often see the Septuagint abbreviated as LXX.

            Here’s a brief description of the various Greek texts. Codex Vaticanus is a fourth century AD manuscript which has all the psalms except Pss 105:27—137:6. Codex Sinaiticus is a fourth century AD manuscript that contains the entire book of Psalms. Codex Alexandrinus is a fifth century manuscript which has all the psalms except Psalm 49:20–79:11. I believe it’s important to note that all three of these Greek manuscripts contain an additional Psalm. Psalm 151 explains how David was a great warrior with amazing musical skill. Psalm 151 appears to acknowledge the 150 psalms were a complete unit. Most scholars believe the translation from Hebrew to Greek occurred after 200 BC.

            The Masoretic text includes the superscriptions in the verse numbers. The Greek and English versions do not include the superscriptions in the verse numbers of the psalms. As a result, the numbering of the verses in the Hebrew Masoretic text (as well as commentaries and reference works that discuss them) will often be one or more verses higher.  

Dead Sea Scrolls’ Psalms Scroll. Similar to the Septuagint, the Dead Sea Scrolls’ Psalms Scroll is considered to be an inferior text type. Out of the many books found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, the book of Psalms appears most often. At least thirty-nine psalm scrolls or manuscripts have been found.[6]

PLACEMENT AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS IN THE CANON. The book of Psalms is located in our English Bibles among the “poetic books” or the “wisdom” books. These are the books of Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon.

            In the Hebrew Bible the book of Psalms appears in the third section called the “writings.” In most Hebrew Bibles the “writings” are located after the sections called the “Law” and the “Prophets.” In these Hebrew manuscripts the book of Psalms normally appears first among the books in the “Writings.” In Luke 24:44 Jesus said, “These are My words which I spoke to you while I was still with you, that all things which are written about Me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.” It appears here that Jesus mentions Psalms as the third division of the Old Testament Hebrew Bible because Psalms was the first book of that third section.

            With that said, our English Bibles do not follow the order of books as they appear in Hebrew manuscripts. Instead, our English Bibles follow the order of the books of the Bible (as well as the titles given to them), from the Septuagint (LXX) and the Latin Vulgate.

COLLECTION AND FORMATION OF THE BOOK OF PSALMS

The book of Psalms was formed like the modern-day Mississippi River. What starts as one small stream in Minnesota gathers water from many small streams to create one large river by the time it reaches Louisiana. In the same way, the book of Psalms is one large book consisting of 150 psalms that were gathered over a period of time to form one book. Thomas Constable believes, “Ezra, the great renovator of post exilic Judaism, may have been responsible for adding these [Psalms 90—106 and Psalms 107—150] and perhaps putting the whole collection in its final form.”[7]

Outline of the Book of Psalms into Five Books. As you might notice in your Bible, the book of Psalms is divided up into five books. Book one contains Psalms 1—41, book two contains Psalms 42—72, book three contains Psalms 73—89, book four contains Psalms 90—106, and book five contains Psalms 107—150. Each of those five books ends with a doxology. Psalm 41:13 is a doxology for book one (Psalms 1—41). Psalm 72:18–19 is a doxology for book two (Psalms 42—72) and includes a note about how the prayers of David are ended in Psalm 72:20. Psalm 89:52 is a doxology for book three (Psalm 73—89). Psalm 106:48 is a doxology for book four (Psalms 90—106). Psalm 150 (the entire psalm) is a doxology for book five (Psalms 107—150).

Evidence of Psalms Divided up into Five Books. Our earliest evidence of the book of Psalms being divided up into five books comes from the Dead Sea Scrolls. It appears that the Qumran community had made copies of the book of Psalms. As I share below, at least thirty-nine psalms scrolls or manuscripts were found in various Qumran caves.[8] Some were partial and some were complete. However, several things were clear from these discoveries. The division of the book of Psalms into five books is evident in the Dead Sea Scroll manuscripts. Many of those manuscripts were probably copied in the first century AD.[9] This supports the common belief that the book of Psalms was in its final form (which we see now in our Bibles) at the close of the Canon in 400 BC.

The Pentateuch of Praise. We could call the book of Psalms the “Pentateuch of Praise.” But why do we have five books of psalms inside the book of Psalms? We do not know exactly why. Some scholars have worked hard to connect book one of the Psalms to the themes of Genesis, the themes of book two to Exodus, etc. However, I would not follow that conclusion. In my opinion that method seems forced and arbitrary. Let me give you a few examples. Psalm 114 is a psalm about the Exodus, yet it’s in book five, not book two. Psalm 104 is about creation in Genesis, yet it’s in book four, not book one.

A Response to the Pentateuch. Perhaps a better way to view the reason or purpose of the five books within the book of Psalms is a response to the five books of Moses. These five books within the book of Psalms is the congregation’s five-fold answer to God’s revelation in the five books of Moses.

The Text Suggests a Span of Collection. The psalms were written over a wide range of dates, so the collection of the psalms into books likely occurred over a long period of time. I think Psalm 72:20 gives us a hint of this. We read in Psalm 72:20, “The prayers of David the son of Jesse are ended.”[10] This verse implies that the psalms of David had been collected up until that point in time. However, several psalms before Psalm 72 are not written by David, and there are seventeen psalms of David after Psalm 72, so this note probably reflects an early collection of psalms. In effect, the collection of psalms likely occurred over a long period of time.

Life in Israel Suggests a Span of Collection. Descriptions of life in Israel suggests a group of psalms had been collected and used. Solomon organized singing at the temple (2 Chri 5:11–14; 7:6; 9:11; Ecc 2:8). Jehoshaphat did the same thing (2 Chron 20:21–22) as well as Jehoiada (2 Chron 23:18). Hezekiah conducted religious reforms in Judah and in the process the musical guilds were reestablished (2 Chron 29:25–28, 30; 30:21; 31:2). In one instance Hezekiah told the Levites to praise God with the words of David and Asaph (2 Chron 29:30). Based on this, many scholars believe at least two collections of the psalms existed for Hezekiah to ask the Levites to use. Further evidence of collections of psalms would be Josiah reinstituting the temple music and musical guilds (2 Chron 35:15, 25).

Stages of Collection. The collection of the psalms was likely gradual and had frequent reorganization and revision. Old Testament scholar Allen Ross suggests a three-stage process.[11]

• Stage #1. The first stage of collection likely was the writing of individual psalms. Some of these found their ways into the hymnal of the psalms. (See my section, “Psalms Aren’t Only in the Psalms” for examples of written psalms that didn’t make it into the book of Psalms.)
• Stage #2. The second stage of collection of the psalms was the actual collecting activity. We see that collection in the five books in our Bibles today. The earliest evidence of this five-fold division of the book of Psalms is the Qumran scrolls found near the Dead Sea.
• Stage #3. The third stage of collection could have been (or likely was) the work of a final editor that placed the psalms into their specific order.

The Psalms as a Collection. Psalm 1 and Psalm 2 are often seen as an introduction to the collection of the 150 psalms. Psalms 146—150 appear to be placed there as a conclusion to the 150 psalms.[12] If those psalms are the “bookends” of the psalms, many scholars see Psalms 90—106 (book 4) as the editorial center.[13]

Approaches to the Collection of the Psalms. I personally follow what is called the “canonical approach” to the psalms. This approach is contrary to previous approaches. Let’s survey the different works on the psalms.

• Form-Critical Approach. The “Form-Critical” approach was advocated by J. Wellhausen, B. Duhm, and A. Ralhs, all who attributed the Psalms to the Maccabean period of the second century BC. H. Gunkel was also a famous psalms scholar and followed the “Form-Critical” approach but did not focus on historical background of the psalms.
• Cult-Functional Approach. The “Cult-Functional” approach was taught by Sigmund Mowinkel and focused on the cultic and festival activity of the psalms. The psalms, according to Mowinkel, were used to celebrate God being enthroned as king. Much of his work were theories constructed from the Mesopotamian Akitu festival. Little of his work was based on exegesis of the psalms or cultural background as described in the Old Testament.
• Canonical Approach to the Psalms. Starting with B. Child’s “Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture” (1979), a shift has occurred in the study of psalms. Much of the modern focus on the psalms has been on the compilation and intention given to how they are arranged. Various units in the psalms appear to have been placed together based on interpretations of the psalms. Scholars call these “seams” and our clearest (according to those scholars) are in the royal psalms. The approach I take to the collection and formation of the psalms is the canonical approach.

CONTENT AND COMMON THEMES IN THE BOOKS IN THE BOOK OF PSALMS

Some scholars, I believe, have correctly noticed themes of each of the books within the book of Psalms. I’ve collected the different observations below.

            Thomas Constable believes book one (chs. 1—41) is the book of personal experience, book two (chs. 42—72) is the book of Elohim, book three (chs. 73—89) is the dark book, book four (chs. 90—106) is the book of the king, and book five (chs. 107—150) is the book of praise.[14]

COLLECTIONS OF PSALMS IN THE BOOK OF PSALMS

Scholar Allen Ross writes, “Since the writing of the Psalms ranged over such an extended period, there must have been various stages in its collection.”[15] If we set aside the numerous psalms of David, there are at least four collections of psalms within the book of Psalms.

Psalms of Asaph. These are Psalms 50, 73—83. They were composed by Asaph, but they also might have been composed or collected by his descendants. These psalms focus on God’s justice to Israel and the nations connected to Israel. These psalms also refer to God with the name[16] Elohim instead of Yahweh,[17] which is the common name of God used in the other psalms. These psalms at times feature a prophetic or divine voice, emphasis on history, and contain references to the covenant.[18]

Psalms of Ascents. These are Psalms 120—134. These psalms consist of lament (both individual and communal), confidence, wisdom, royal, and Zion. However, all of them place a heavy emphasis on Jerusalem.[19] These likely were assembled for worship reasons based on earlier materials. This is similar to how the Hebrew Bible collected five books and grouped them together because they were used in the annual feasts of Israel (Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Esther). These five books were put together and grouped together in the Hebrew Bible in a section called the “Writings” (it’s known in Hebrew as the kethubim, the third division in the Hebrew Bible). Some scholars propose that a small hymnal of psalms was given to pilgrims to use for singing as they traveled to Jerusalem.[20]  

Hallel Hymnal. These are Psalms 104—106 (the end of book four), 111—117, and 135. Some people include Psalms 146—150 as part of the Hallel Hymnal. Many of these psalms have been read for many years by Jewish families during the Passover seder.

Hallelujah Psalms. These psalms have “hallelujah” either at the beginning, the end, or in both locations in the Psalm.

Royal Psalms. These are Psalms 93—99.

Psalms of the Sons of Korah. These are Psalms 42—49[21] and Psalms 84—85, 87—88.[22] These psalms of the Sons of Korah contain a variety of types. Often they take us to the highest levels of confidence, and these often are in the Zion psalms. In addition, they also take us to the lowest points of discouragement (Psalms 44, 48), and these are in the lament psalms.[23] The only wedding psalm we have comes from the Sons of Korah.

TITLES OF THE CHAPTERS IN THE PSALMS. These titles above each psalm are known as “superscriptions.” Much debate occurs about these superscriptions. Let’s explore that together.

Introduction. Providing a succinct summary of the superscriptions is difficult because of the amount of psalms (150 of them), the array of opinions, the arrangement of the prepositions used, and the textual evidence.[24]

            Most of the 150 psalms have superscriptions and it appears that these superscriptions were one of the ways that the psalms were placed alongside each other and grouped into five different “books.” The superscriptions contain reference to music, persons, historical information, and numerous other classifications. One of the problems we have is that we often do not know what many of the terms in the superscriptions mean.

Historical Information. There is historical information that always occurs last in the superscriptions, but it only appears in psalms of David and only in thirteen of those psalms.[25] These extended notes not only mention David, but appear to attempt to locate and provide context to David’s life as it relates to the psalm.

            There are various opinions about the historical parts of the superscriptions. Some people believe that all thirteen of these psalms were written by David. Some people believe that these thirteen psalms reflect traditions that were preserved by priests or written later. Some people believe these thirteen psalms contain interpretive suggestions made by scribes for understanding the psalms in light of other information available in 1 Samuel and 2 Samuel.

Occasions. While thirteen psalms refer to historical information specifically related to David’s life, there are some psalms that refer to other occasions. Examples of these other occasions are in Psalm 30 we read “A Psalm; a song at the Dedication of the House. A Psalm of David.” In Psalm 45 we read “A Song of Love” for a wedding of a king. In Psalm 92 we read “A Psalm, a Song for the Sabbath day.” In Psalm 100 we read “A Psalm of Thanksgiving.” In Psalm 102 we read “A Prayer of the Afflicted.”[26]

Classifications. We are not always sure of the meaning of various classifications of the psalms. Because of this, many English translations transliterate the Hebrew words into English words. Below I have provided some examples.

• mizmor. Likely means “psalm.”
• shir or sir. Likely means “song” and is used in Psalms 120–134 in the “Songs of Ascents” as a special category of “songs.”
• maskil. This word appears to mean for “skilled playing” or for “giving understanding.” The root of this word relates to skill.[27] Some scholars say the psalms that contain this word are psalms that are “a contemplative poem.”[28]
• tephillah. This word probably means “prayer” and is used in five psalms (Psalms 17, 86, 90, 102, 142). These are all lament psalms.
• tehillah. This word likely means “praise” and is used in only one psalm (Psalm 145).
• miktam. The meaning of this word is uncertain, but it appears to come from a verb meaning “to cover” or “being overwhelmed.” How we apply that meaning to the psalms is uncertain.
• shiggaion. This word only appears in Psalm 7 (and Hab 3:1). Based on the root it might describe wandering.[29] In a musical context, this word could describe a wide range of musical notes (such as wandering up and down a scale). Other guesses are that this word is connected with the idea of “fervor” or “passionate lament.”[30]

Musical Aspects. There are musical aspects in the psalms, but this only occurs in the superscriptions that say, “For the Choir Director.”

            Some of these psalms say there are “stringed instruments” (Hebrew word, neginoth[31]) that accompanies the psalm. These are Psalms 4, 6, 54, 55, 61, 67, 76. Those psalms “are said to be accompanied ‘with’ or played ‘on’ stringed instruments.”[32]           Psalm 5 refers to a “flute accompaniment” (Hebrew word, nechilot). Psalm 6 and Psalm 12 refer to a “an eight-string lyre” (Hebrew word, sheminith).

            Some of the material in the superscriptions may refer to different musical styles from various cities and regions in the ancient Near East. Examples might be “Gittith” (Pss 8, 81, 84), “Jeduthun” (Pss 39, 67, 77), “Mahalath” (Pss 53), and “Mahalath Leannoth” (Pss 88).

Authors. Ninety of the psalms tell us their author. Here’s a brief breakdown and overview of the authors.

            Seventy-three of the psalms are attributed to David. Psalm 90 is “A Prayer of Moses, the man of God.” Psalms 72 and 127 were psalms by Solomon.

            Many psalms were written by Levite musicians (see 1 Chron 6:39; 15:17, 19; 2 Chron 5:12). Psalms 50, 73—83 came from Asaph. Psalm 88 “A Song. A Psalm of the sons of Korah. For the choir director; according to Mahalath Leannoth. A Maskil of Heman the Ezrahite.” Psalm 89 “A Maskil of Ethan the Ezrahite.”[33]

David. As I shared earlier, our English Bibles tell us seventy-three were written by David.

            The Septuagint attributes eighty-five psalms to David compared to the Masoretic Text that says David wrote seventy-three psalms. A survey of the Dead Sea Scrolls reveals that the Qumran community believed David wrote “3600 psalms, 446 songs, and four additional songs for the side.”[34]

            Scripture tells us in a variety of places about David writing, singing, and organizing musical material for the sanctuary (see 1 Chron 13:8; 15:3–28; 16:4–43; 23:1–5; 25; 2 Sam 6:5). We know from 1 Samuel 16:14–23 that David was skilled at music. In 2 Samuel 1 he appears to compose a psalm of lament over the death of Jonathan and Saul.

            Fourteen psalms contain short bits of historical information about David’s life.

            -Psalm 59 is connected with 1 Samuel 19:11.

            -Psalm 56 is connected with 1 Samuel 21:10–15.

            -Psalm 34 is connected with 1 Samuel 21:10—22:2.

            -Psalm 52 is connected with 1 Samuel 22:9.

            -Psalm 54 is connected with 1 Samuel 23:15–23.

            -Psalm 7 is connected with 1 Samuel 23:24–29 (but there are some problems with this view).

            -Psalm 57 could be related to the incident that occurred with Adullam (1 Sam 22:1–2).

            -Psalm 142 also references David being in a cave and could refer to David’s experience with Adullam (1 Sam 22:1–2) or at En Gedi (1 Sam 24).

            -Psalm 60 is from 2 Samuel 8:8, 13 and 1 Chronicles 18:9–12.

            -Psalm 18 is almost identifical to 2 Samuel 22.

            -Psalm 51 is based on David’s sin in 2 Samuel 11–12.

            -Psalm 3 appears connected with 2 Samuel 15—18.

            -Psalm 63 could be related to 2 Samuel 15:23.

            -Psalm 30 might be connected with 1 Chronicles 21:1—22:1. Psalm 30 suggests David wrote it for the dedication of the temple after he sinned by numbering the people.

Asaph. King David appointed the prophet Asaph as chief musician (1 Chron 16:5, 7, 37; 25:2; 2 Chron 29:30; Neh 12:46). The descendants of Asaph resumed their duties after the exile (Ezra 2:41).

Sons of Korah. Korah led a rebellion (Num 16) and was swallowed up in an earthquake that God caused. Yet Korah’s sons survived (Num 26:11). They and their descendants served as Levites. The sons of Korah supported David while Saul was king (1 Chron 12:6). David appointed them as gate keepers of the temple (1 Chron 26:19). After the exile the sons of Korah again served in the same position (1 Chron 9:19).

People. I think it’s important to note that fifty-five of the psalms that are attributed to David, Asaph, or the sons of Korah, have the word “choir director” (NASB) as the first word (except for one psalm). The phrase, “choir director” comes from the Hebrew word (meh-nats-tsay-akh), and describes a person that was probably some type of “director of music” (as NIV translates it) or maybe a “master of ceremonies.” These fifty-five psalms are the only psalms that mention musical aspects.

            With that said, the people mentioned in the superscriptions appear to be authors. The preposition used in the superscriptions is the Hebrew letter, lamed. This preposition can mean “by” or “for” or “about.” Thus a psalm that has “lamed David” in the superscription could be written by David, it could be written about David,[35] or it could be written or collected for David. It is possible that this phrase means different things in different psalms.[36]

            As I’ve shared throughout, our English Bibles utilize the Masoretic Text as the primary basis for translation of the book of Psalms. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Greek translations put David’s name in more superscriptions than the Masoretic Text. This might reveal that the scribes had been adding these titles for a long time.

TYPES OF PSALMS.[37] In their book, The Essential Companion to the Psalms, Brian Webster and Greg Beach state, “The psalms are grouped into different types, called genres, based on the kinds of things they say, the emotional mood they invoke, and how they depict certain speakers, such as the whole community, or an individual, or perhaps the king.”[38]

            The psalms are responses[39] to God’s earlier revelation. The psalms are expressions of the believer who has heard the prophetic word of God while living in a troubled society. With that in mind, most of the psalms convey this basic message: God is great, but life is tough.[40] This leads us to group the psalms into two major categories. One category is psalms of praise that declare, “God is great.” Another category is psalms of lament that declare, “life is tough.”

            We must remember that these “types” and various “categories” are somewhat artificial. The ancient writers wrote creatively and at times would mix these categories.[41] By no means did a Psalm writer start out, “Today I plan to write an individual lament Psalm” or think, “This is going to be a messianic psalm.” Rather, these categories are identified based on common characteristics and elements of the psalms.

Lament. The basic idea of lament psalms is this: plea to God to intervene in a crisis. Some lament psalms are individual and some are communal. Allen Ross writes, “Lament psalms tell of a person’s or community’s lamenting in their distress as they turn to God for help. This kind of complaint is not like the grumbling and complaining of Israel in the wilderness. There they complained against God while speaking to each other with bad attitudes. In the laments the psalmists complain of their situation. And though freely expressing their disappointment with God, they are turning to him, not away.”[42]

            The phrase, “life is tough,” describes lament psalms. In psalms of lament there are circumstances that lead the worshipper to cry out to God during a difficult and overwhelming situation. These psalms reveal that it’s not easy to live a life of faith in a culture and society that is perverse and twisted. Lament psalms are the most common type of Psalm.[43] These psalms contain a cry for help during distress.[44] By “lament” they describe a disappointment, sorrow, or grief. It’s been said that psalms of lament are like “prayers for help out of distress.”[45]

            How we categorize the lament psalms is based on the number of the personal pronouns used. With that said, we have laments of the community (or laments of the people) as well as laments of the individual.

Laments of the Community (Laments of the People). These psalms have plural personal pronouns. They are also laments that are normally shorter than individual psalms. These psalms usually were uttered during a national crisis. In these psalms there often is a rehearsal of history between God and his people. These rehearsals often mention God’s mighty deeds done on behalf of his people. In these laments often the nation of Israel is faced with a difficulty and they approach God together with their lament. With that said, the destruction of the temple in 586 BC appears to be the occasion of Psalms 74, 79, and 137. Psalms commonly identified as laments of the community are Psalms 44, 60, 74, 79, 80, 83, 85, 90, 123, 137.

Laments of the Individual. These psalms have a singular pronoun. Psalms commonly identified as psalms of laments of the individual are: Psalms 3, 5, 6, 7, 13, 17, 25, 26, 28, 31, 35, 38, 39, 42, 43, 51, 54, 55, 57, 59, 61, 64, 69, 70, 71, 86, 88, 102, 109, 120, 130, 140, 143. Other possible laments of the individual could be Psalms 22, 36, 63. Psalms of individual lament have been placed into even more specific categories.

            A subgroup of individual lament psalms are known as “Prayers of the Accused.” In these psalms false accusations have been made against the psalmist. In response, the psalmist pleads for vindication from these accusations. Here’s an example, “Vindicate me, O God, and plead my case against an ungodly nation; O deliver me from the deceitful and unjust man!” (Psalm 43:1, NASB). The following psalms are sometimes classified as psalms of the accused: Psalms 3, 4, 5, 7, 11, 17, 25—27, 31, 35, 41—42, 43, 52, 54—59, 77, 86, 94, 102, 109, 139—140, 142.

            Another subgroup of individual lament psalms is known as “Psalms of Illness.” In these psalms there is a description of an illness of the psalmist. In these psalms the writer laments about a physical condition (Pss 102:3) and prays for healing from that illness (Pss 6:2). The following psalms are sometimes classified as psalms of illness: Psalms 6, 13, 38, 39, 69, 88, 102.

Patterns and Elements of Lament Psalms. The patterns we find in the many lament psalms often alter depending on each lament psalm. The lament psalm does not necessarily have all the elements listed below, and the order may also vary.

            According to Ron Allen, lament psalms often have six elements. 1. Introductory appeal. 2. Lament. 3. Confession of trust. 4. Petition. 5. Motifs that justify divine intervention. 6. Vow of praise or shout of praise. Some lament psalms also have a seventh element: the prophetic utterance.[46]

            According to Brian Webster and Greg Beach, lament psalms have eleven elements. 1. Initial appeal to be heard. 2. Lament over distress. 3. Accusation against enemies. 4. Complaint against God. 5. Claim of innocence or loyalty. 6. Confession of sin. 7. Petition. 8. Imprecation. 9. Motivation to answer. 10. Statement of confidence. 11. Vow to praise God.[47]

Wisdom. The psalms of wisdom overlap with the psalms of praise, but have a special emphasis on understanding. Psalms of wisdom often have themes prominent in other books of poetry such as Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. Most psalms of wisdom contain some type of “instruction” for the people to praise God, but in addition to that, some psalms have a predominant theme of “instruction” or “wisdom.”

            This type of psalm arose out of the way some Psalm writers referred to their psalms as “wisdom” (Pss 37:30), “proverb” (Prov 49:3, 4), “instruction” (Pss 78:1), “law” (Pss 94:12), and “parable” (Pss 78:2). Some scholars call these psalms “instructional” psalms or “Torah” psalms (see Pss 1, 19, 119). Some scholars see a subcategory of “wisdom” psalms being “Torah” psalms. Some features of wisdom psalms are seen in “better” statements (Pss 119:72), blessing formulas (Pss 1:1), emphasis on Law (Pss 119), contracts between righteous and wicked (Pss 1:6; 49), and advice for sons (Pss 34:11).

            While most psalms in the book of psalms do contain wisdom and instruction, some psalms predominantly address people in a way that conveys wisdom for instruction like the book of Proverbs, Job, Ecclesiastes. However, often the wisdom and instructional psalms are mixed into other categories of the psalms. These psalms likely are wisdom psalms: Psalms 1, 10, 12, 15, 19, 32, 34, 36, 49, 50, 52, 53, 73, 78, 82, 91, 92, 94, 111, 112, 119, 119, 127, 128, 139.

Messianic. The messianic psalms are perhaps the most famous type of psalms in the American church. Messianic psalms point forward in hope to Israel’s coming Messiah. This Messiah would be a descendant of David and his divine rule would fulfill many of God’s promises. In essence, Messianic psalms refer to the Messiah and the hope he brings. Most scholars see the following psalms as Messianic psalms: Psalms 2, 8, 16, 22-24, 40-41, 45, 68-69, 72, 89, 102, 110, 118.

Pilgrim. These psalms were sung while the Jews were traveling to Jerusalem for the national feast days. These are also called psalms of ascent. These pilgrim psalms also often have the phrase, “A Song of Ascents,” in the superscription (see Pss 120—134). Most scholars believe these psalms refer to Israel going up to Jerusalem. Likely, this was for the three annual festivals that Jews traveled to Jerusalem to observe: Passover, Pentecost, Booths. See Exod 23:17; 1 Sam 1:3; Pss 42:4; 122:4; Isa 36:29. Most scholars see Psalms 120—134 as pilgrim psalms.

Entrance Liturgies. These psalms open with a question about who may enter the temple. Next there is an answer (possibly from a priest) about requirements for who may enter. The psalm then concludes with an affirmation or blessing on those who are qualified to enter the temple.[48] Psalms 15 and Psalm 24 follow that structure closely. Psalm 92, Psalm 100, and Psalm 118 have similar characteristics but don’t follow the structure as closely.[49]

Liturgy. A liturgy psalm contains roles for several different speakers. In other words, there will be several speakers or speaking voices that appear in the psalm. This might be individual persons such as a priest, the king, a prophet, a worshipper, and enemy, or even God. This might be groups such as priests, pilgrims approaching Jerusalem, pilgrims leaving Jerusalem, gatekeepers, or the assembled community.[50] Sometimes Psalm 118 is considered a liturgy psalm. Because of these elements, liturgy psalms often “have a deliberate interplay between two or more of these voices.”[51]

Thanksgiving. Psalms of thanksgiving can be personal or corporate. They express gratitude for God’s blessing and work in the life of the author or community. These psalms give credit to God for what God has done in that person’s life.[52] These psalms thank God for deliverance from distress.[53] Psalms of thanksgiving—like psalms of lament—can be categorized into different groups based on the number of the personal pronouns. Psalms that use “I” or “me” (singular personal pronoun) are called individual thanksgiving psalms. Psalms that use “we” or “us” (plural personal pronoun) are called community thanksgiving psalms. Some psalms have both because there is a leader (“I” or “me” or “my”) as well as an assembled people (“we” or “us” or “our”). Psalm 118 is likely a psalm of Thanksgiving.

Praise. The psalms of praise are hymns of celebration and joy that are sometimes expressed as responses to God’s character or actions. These psalms talk excitedly about God and thank him. Examples of praise psalms are Psalm 8, 19, 29, 30, 33, most of 36-51, 100, 113-118, 120-136, 140-150. As you probably can guess, there are different praise psalms.

• Descriptive Praise. These psalms describe the praise of God. As Ron Allen writes, “The psalmist exalts in the person of God, his sublime attributes, the glory of his name.”[54]
• Declarative Praise. These psalms declare the praise of God. In declarative praise psalms “the emphasis is on what God has done for his people.[55]
• Patterns and Elements of Praise Psalms. The pattern of praise psalms is very simple. They begin with a call to praise then tell the reason for that praise.[56] Another pattern is taught by Webster and Beach who say that psalms of praise have three elements: call to praise,[57] motivations to praise,[58] and praise itself.[59] Songs of praise sometimes have all three elements, but not always in a consistent proportion among different praise psalms. However, not all praise psalms have all three elements, some have two elements or just one element.

Royal. A royal psalm involves the king. In royal psalms often the king is described in the “foreground.”[60] Because royal psalms involve the king, royal psalms can sometimes be included in other categories because the king may be the speaker/writer of a praise song, a thanksgiving song, a lament psalm, etc.

            However, some of the royal psalms are only classified as royal psalms. Some royal psalms are only about the king. These might be a psalm focused on God’s covenant with David, a prayer for the king made by the people, a king’s coronation, or even a royal wedding.

            Not everyone agrees on royal psalms as a category because not everyone agrees that a king is the speaker. Some scholars only label royal psalms as those that specifically mention “king” or “David” or “anointed.” Some scholars do not require those terms and have expanded the list.[61] Often the royal psalms refer to a high point in the king’s career such as coronation (Pss 2), wedding (Pss 45), or heading into battle (Pss 20; 144). Other examples of royal psalms are Psalm 89 as it relates to the Davidic covenant, Psalm 110 with the king’s coming conquest, and Psalm 72 which describes the king’s glorious reign.

Alphabetical. Several psalms are acrostic. In alphabetical psalms each verse or section begins with a different letter of the Hebrew alphabet. Psalm 119 is the most famous alphabetical psalm, but others are Psalms 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 110, 112, 119, 145.

Enthronement Psalms. These psalms commonly have the phrases: “the Lord reigns” (Pss 93, 96—97, 99), “the Lord is a great God and a great King” (Pss 95; 47) or “he is coming to judge” (Pss 98). These psalms anticipate something dramatic happening. Some scholars see these psalms connected to the themes of the coming Messiah and the messianic Kingdom.

Confidence. These psalms speak of confidence in the Lord’s care and protection. Some believe that psalms of lament morphed into psalms of confidence because psalms of lament usually have a statement of confidence. Psalms of confidence are similar to thanksgiving psalms, but are slightly different. Psalms of thanksgiving tell a story from the past. A psalm of confidence projects confidence into the future. There usually are three elements of confidence psalms: 1. Petition. 2. Reference to enemies or difficulties. 3. Affirmations of loyalty.[62]

Imprecatory. These are often psalms of “prayer” that can be called “oracles of judgment.” In these psalms the author prays for God’s justice to prevail on earth. These are prayers that enemies (nations or individual people) would be overthrown. These psalms are often labeled as imprecatory psalms: Psalms 7, 35, 52, 48, 49, 59, 83, 109.

History and Law. These psalms are less popular in our modern church. Psalms of history and law remember past events and reflect on God’s laws. This provides assurance of God’s faithfulness, protection, and provision.

HEBREW POETRY. Hebrew poetry is not about rhyme of sound, but instead about rhyme of thought.^[63] Let’s examine the different aspects of Hebrew poetry.

Parallelism. Hebrew poetry consists of “parallelism” in which lines of controlled length normally work together in sets called “bicolon” (2 lines) or “tricolon” (3 lines). The lines normally work together thematically and harmonize with each other.[64] (There also is cadence and wordplay that occurs in Hebrew poetry, but that’s largely lost in English translations.) Parallelism is a “statement and restatement of the same basic truth in different words with great art, style, and imagery.”[65] All of this is done with structure and symmetry. Charles Ryrie explains, “Unlike much of Western poetry, Hebrew poetry is not based on rhyme or meter, but on rhythm and parallelism. The rhythm is not achieved by balanced numbers of accented and unaccented syllables, but by tonal stress or accent on important words.”[66]

            Some scholars have even distinguished between “internal” parallelism and “external” parallelism. Allen Ross explains, “Parallelism describes the relationship of expressions within verses (internal parallelism); at times it also reflects the relationships between verses (external parallelism).”[67]

            Poetry (in general) is intended to communicate experience.  It’s not (primarily) about rhyme, rhythm, or pretty words. Literature conveys experience and poetry is the most powerful way to convey experience. Rhyme and rhythm are the most common elements of English poetry, but they are almost completely absent in Hebrew poetry.

Experience. Above all, Hebrew poetry is designed to convey an experience.[68] It might have a message, but that message comes from the experience which is the original purpose of the Hebrew poetry.[69] Poets in general often want us to “feel” and that is true with Hebrew poetry as well.[70] This does not imply that Hebrew poetry has no message, it just reminds us that the message comes through the vehicle of experience. That is, the experience of the author that he wants us to feel with him.[71]

Lyric Poetry. Hebrew poetry is what is called “lyric poetry.”  It’s different from other literary forms. Lyric poetry has a concentrated form of discourse with conscious use of artistic elements. The concentrated form of discourse occurs through images, emotional language, symbols, figures, and multiple meanings. The book of Psalms is the largest collection of ancient lyrical poetry.[72] This type of poetry expresses the emotions of the poet.

Imagery in Poetry. The imagery of the psalms is often earthly because the Israelites were farmers and shepherds living in the countryside in nature. The imagery of the psalms is also militaristic because the Israelites were involved in conquering the land and defending their land. Old Testament scholar Allen Ross writes, “Evocative language used in poetic discourse enabled the psalmists to convey several things at the same time. Because the truth was presented in word pictures, it evoked in the reader the feelings that the poet had when he wrote the lines; it excited in the reader the emotional significance of the words as well as their intellectual meanings. For example, the poet could picture the vitality and stability of a godly person through the image of a tree planted by water, or the fear of the fainthearted through the image of melting wax, or the verbal attacks of the wicked through the imagery of swords and arrows. So an exposition of the Psalms must be sensitive to such images in order to appreciate both the intellectual and the emotional meanings of the poetry. In a word, the Psalms must be treated as religious lyrical poetry.”[73]

            With that said, the book of Psalms contains expressions of the emotions of Israel’s faithful God followers who feel joy, fear, doubt, frustration, and hope.

Poetic Devices in the Psalms.  The palms are artistic and contain artistic forms such as patterns, harmony, balance, unity, design, and variation.  The meaning of the content of the psalms was revealed in the authors’ imagination and creativity.[74]

             While parallelism is the primary poetic device of Hebrew, there are various other stylistic and literary devices. Among these are alliteration, assonance, paronomasia, and onomatopoeia. Sadly, many of these elements are lost in translation from Hebrew to English. However, a good study Bible and Bible commentary should bring out these elements for you. Be on the lookout for words like simile, chiasm, metaphor, inclusion, metonymy, apostrophe, and synecdoche. Again, a good commentary or study Bible will help you understand those literary devices.

What Is Hebrew Parallelism? It’s worth reviewing what Hebrew parallelism is.“Parallelism is one statement followed by another, done with art, style, and image. This is, by saying the same thing in slightly different words, the total impression is enhanced beyond saying either line alone.”[75] Or we could define Hebrew parallelism as “the repetition of meaning in parallel expressions.”[76]

The Benefits of Hebrew Parallelism. The amazing thing about Hebrew parallelism is that it does not get lost in translation. This is because the translation from Hebrew into English is based on parallel “ideas” and “thoughts.” It’s relatively easy to transfer the sense of Hebrew into English. If Hebrew poetry was primarily based on rhyme or rhythm, then much would be lost. But, because it is based on parallel ideas it is relatively easy to transfer that rhyme of “ideas” into English.

            I agree with Ron Allen who writes, “Since parallelism, or stereometrics, is the essential genius of Hebrew poetry, it is especially providential that this is the very thing that does not get lost in translation. Were Hebrew poetry based on rhyme and regular metrical patterns, translation into the major languages of the world would be stilted and imprecise because of the difficulties of rendering such poetry into the receiving or target language idiom.”[77]

Types of Hebrew Parallelism. Now that we know about Hebrew parallelism, lets examine the types.

Synonymous (Iterative) Parallelism (Pss 2:3; 46:7; 103:6). In synonymous (iterative) parallelism the second line restates some or all of the first line in different words/images. “Synonymous parallelism describes the closest similarity between each of the two consecutive lines. A term or unit of thought in one part is paralleled by an equivalent term or unit of thought in the other.”[78] Another way to explain synonymous parallelism is that the first line is echoed in the second line with a slight change of terms. Here are some examples of synonymous (iterative) parallelism.   

“Why are the nations in an uproar
And the peoples devising a vain thing?” ~ Psalm 2:1

“O Lord, how my adversaries have increased!
Many are rising up against me.” ~ Psalm 3:1

Antithetic (Contrastive) Parallelism (Pss 1:6; 13:9; Prov 27:6). In antithetic (contrastive) parallelism the second line affirms the truth of the first line in an opposite way. In other words, the second line stands in contrast to the first line. “Antithetical parallelism balances the parallel elements through the opposition or contrast of thoughts.”[79] Here are a few examples.

“For the Lord knows the way of the righteous,         
But the way of the wicked will perish.” ~ Psalm 1:6

“How blessed is the man who has made the Lord his trust,
And [how blessed is the man who] has not turned to the proud, nor to those who lapse into falsehood.”~Ps 4:4

Climatic Parallelism. In climatic parallelism the second line repeats part of the first line exactly and then adds a conclusion (Pss 22:4; 96:7).[80] This is also called “step parallelism.” These are rare.

 “Ascribe to the Lord, O sons of the mighty,
Ascribe to the Lord [O sons of the mighty] glory and strength.” ~ Pss 29:1

Synthetic (Completive) Parallelism (Pss 2:6; 104:27). In synthetic (completive) parallelism the second line completes something introduced in the first line. The second line repeats the thought of the first line and then adds a conclusion.

“Come, let us worship and bow down,
Let us kneel before the Lord our Maker.” ~ Psalm 95:6

Emblematic Parallelism. Allen Ross writes, “Emblematic parallelism occurs when one of the parallel units is a metaphorical illumination of the other.”[81]

Seeing the Psalms as Poetry and Identifying Parallelism. Many readers are greatly helped by the “typesetting” done by most modern translations such as the NASB, NIV, NLT, ESV, etc. These translators have placed the text into lines that help us recognize the text is poetry and allow us to see the parallel lines so that we may interpret them.

            While this might seem elementary, we must note that the KJV was published in 1611, but the identification of Hebrew parallelism did not occur until Bishop Robert Lowth discovered Hebrew poetry in 1753. This means the KJV does not show us the parallelism in the psalms.

Further Development of Parallelism. In addition to what I’ve shared above, scholars have advanced other aspects of Hebrew poetry related to parallelism. While not as prominent and sometimes less apparent in the English text, here are a few other elements of the poetry of Hebrew.[82]

• Grammatical Aspect. This looks at the syntax of poetic lines and how pronouns, nouns, verbs, etc., work together in parallelism.
• Lexical Aspect. This relates to the pairing of terms in parallel lines. There are at least two groups of lexical aspect. One group is called “paradigmatic pairing” which is when words of the same class are paired together. Examples are heaven/earth, day/night, righteous/wicked, good/bad, woman/man. Another group is called “syntagmatic pairing” which are forms of hendiadys (loyalty/truth) or merisms (heavens/earth),
• Phonological Aspect. This deals with sound pairs in parallel lines. See Psalm 122:7 with shalom meaning “peace” and shalow meaning “prosperity”.

THEMES IN THE PSALMS. In addition to the technique of Hebrew poetry—and the types (or categories) of psalms—which we have already examined, we can now also evaluate the content of the Psalms. “The book of Psalms contains much more than fancy poetry and songs of praise, as it truly reflects deep theological truth!”[83]

            As you can imagine, a book that has 150 chapters covers a vast array of theological concepts. Below are a few of the most common themes that I have noticed in the psalms.

God will establish his just rule of the universe. Many of the psalms express a belief that the Lord sovereignly rules the universe and will establish his rule on the earth through his people.[84] Even when—and especially when—in difficult situations or among wicked people, the psalmist writers expected God to intervene and set things right.

Expectation of fellowship with God in the afterlife. This is often seen in mentions of “Sheol” in the psalms. See Psalms 16—17, 47, 73 for examples.

God as king. Over any other earthly ruler, above other gods, and in every situation, God is still king. The psalms teach us that God is a warrior (Pss 18:7—15; 24:7—10) as well as a judge (Pss 9:7; 105:7).

God is a safe place of refuge. A survey of the different metaphors in the psalms makes it clear God is a safe place of refuge. These metaphors include God as a “rock,” as a place we can rest under his “wings,” or God as a “shield” to protect us.

Monotheism (Pss 81—83, 86).

Creation (Pss 8, 19, 139).

Sin and the Fall (Pss 19, 51, 66).

God’s Covenant (Pss 25, 78, 89, 105).

Future Hope (Pss 22, 24, 51, 78).

Worship. According to Thomas Constable, “the subject of the Book of Psalms is worship. Worship is the act of offering to God what is due to Him because of who He is.”[85]

PSALMS AREN’T ONLY IN THE BOOK OF PSALMS. A survey of Scripture reveals that psalms are not only found in the book of Psalms. As we carefully read our Old Testament we notice a Psalm of Hannah (1 Sam 2:1–10), a Song of Deborah (Judges 5:1–31), a Psalm of Isaiah (Isa 12:1–6 which is often called a “Millennial Psalm”), as well as psalms in Daniel 2 and Jonah 2. Other examples would be the Song of Moses (Exod 15:1–18; Deut 32:1–43) and the Song of Miriam (Exod 15:21).

USE OF PSALMS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. “The early church made extensive use of the Psalter, quoting or alluding to it more than any other OT work.”[86] The psalms were used for New Testament worship, but also for interpreting the person and work of Jesus Christ. In this way we see repeated references of Psalms 2, 22, 69, 110, and 118. These psalms help New Testament writers interpret who Jesus was and what Jesus did.

            The United Bible societies (UBS) 4th edition lists more than 400 quotations from the psalms in the New Testament. These quotations are of both phrases and complete verses. These 400 quotations are in contrast to the second most quoted book of the Old Testament, Isaiah, with forty-seven quotations. It’s estimated that the New Testament quotes from thirty-five different psalms.

USE OF PSALMS IN THE EARLY CHURCH. The psalms were often used in the early church to teach people about worship and how to pray. In this way, the psalms taught the early church how to give glory to God through song.[87]

USE OF PSALMS IN THE CONTEMPORARY AND CURRENT CHURCH. Many churches have set the psalms to music and use them in their worship. “Personalizing the Psalms involves several conversations: with self, with Scripture, with community, and with God.”[88]

APPLICATION OF THE PSALMS.

1. I am driven to my knees and I worship God. This is because of his power, goodness, grace, and mercy. “In both good and bad days, we’re called as believers to worship our faithful God, and the wide variety of psalms present us with many different ways to approach God today.”[89]
2. I find ways to use the psalms in my daily life. Jesus’s last words in Matthew 27:46 and Luke 23:46 both quote from the Psalms (Psalm 21:1 and Psalm 31:5). What dire and difficult circumstances are you in and what psalm might you be able to quote to help you? The psalms provide comfort to us in our darkest times in life.

MISCELANOUS QUOTES ON THE PSALMS.

“No doubt the prayers in the Psalter also found widespread use by those who came to pray for forgiveness, healing, protection, deliverance, and comfort, as they have throughout the history of the church.”[90]

            “When the Scriptures call believers to praise God, they are calling them to enjoy God and His benefits. And when God blesses someone, that fact is to be shared in the congregation so that all may enter into the praise and enjoy God and His benefits.”[91]

            “Selâh, found within many psalms but not in their headings, may indicate when the worshipers were to ‘lift up’ their voices (perhaps selâh is related to sālal, ‘to lift up or elevate’). It is used 71 times in the psalms. Selâh was not originally in the psalms; it was added later. Even so, it is quite ancient.”^[92]

            “Believing people over the centuries have turned to the book of Psalms for comfort, for encouragement, and for patterns in the expression of joy.” ~ Ronald Allen[93]

            “No guide to worship, both personal and public, is so fine as The Book of Psalms.”[94]

            “Of all the books in the Old Testament, the Book of Psalms is the one most loved by the family of God. Within the Psalms we find expression to our deepest thoughts of reverence for God, our most excited joy in knowing Him, and our darkest terror in those moments we feel cut off from Him. In the Psalms we have it all: music, wisdom, beauty, truth, theology, experience, emotion, and expression. In the Psalms we have the Lord Jesus in bold prophecy and in subtle types. Most of all, in the Psalms we have the praise of God.”[95]

            “The Psalms are the most treasured part of Israel’s literary gifts to the church. No part of the Old Testament is easier to approach for the Christian reader than the Psalter.”[96]

            “Much like flakes of snow, the Psalms display great individuality. Each has been crafted lovingly by a master of design.”[97]

            “The Book of Psalms exists as God’s provision to teach us how to praise his name. In the book we learn spontaneity, specificity, intensity, and sincerity in praise. There are few things the modern church needs more.”[98]

            “Of all the books in the Old Testament the Book of Psalms most vividly represents the faith of individuals in the Lord. The Psalms are the inspired responses of human hearts to God’s revelation of Himself in law, history, and prophecy. Saints of all ages have appropriated this collection of prayers and praises in their public worship and private meditations.”^[99]

            “Because the Psalms formed the ‘hymnal’ of the temple, they often celebrate the ordinances of the sanctuary and exult in the privilege of drawing near to God in His holy mountain. This aspect of the psalms, combined with their display of personal religious feelings, makes them the most powerful and complete expression of the worship of ancient Israel. Set in the form of lyric poetry, they became unforgettable.”^[100]

            “The Psalms reveal that the Israelites were an intensely religious people, worshipers of God with a strong sense of right and wrong. Regarding themselves as God’s covenant people, they opposed wickedness and unbelief. Their daily activities, their national celebrations, and their military activities were carried out with religious commitment. The fact that the songs reflect this commitment makes them all the more serviceable for the edification of the entire household of faith.”^[101]

            “The psalms. Their hymns lead us in praising God. Their laments unleash our cries for help. Their royal ceremonies and songs of Zion assert God’s order. Still other psalms lead us to reflect on God’s Word or call us to righteous character.”[102]

            “While we feel welcome visiting with the psalmists, we are sometimes well aware that we are visitors. They speak of geography that we have not visited, countries no longer on the map, and weapons from the wars of days gone by. We live with different political structures and social institutions. Certain turns of phrase are understandable but have a foreign ring. Nevertheless, the psalms still speak powerfully to us with a timeless essence and an open invitation.”[103]

            “Many psalms are cries to God for help and deliverance. They are prayers set in the form of poetry. They are personal, filled with anxieties of real hardships, but often stated in generalized terms so that others can say the same words while reflecting on their own personal crises.”[104]

“Our Hymnal: Sermons from the Psalms”

Here are links to the various sermons I’ve preached from the book psalms.

• The Crown of Creation (Pss 8:3–8)
• The Forgotten Servant (Pss 22)
• Why We Praise Him (Pss 33)
• Standing in Awe (Pss 33:6–9)
• The Transmission of Sin (Pss 51)
• A Map from the Writings (Pss 110)
• When God Delivers (Pss 118)

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Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

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[1] Allen Ross, “Psalms,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 1 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 782.

[2] Much of the material which follows is adapted from C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Poetic Books, rev. ed. (Chicago, IL: Moody, 1988), 131.

[3] Brian Webster and David Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 29.

[4] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 778.

[5] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 778.

[6] W. D. Tucker Jr., “Book of Psalms 1,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings, ed. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 580.

[7] Thomas Constable, Notes on the Psalms,  p. 5.

[8] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1,” Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 530.

[9] Constable, Notes on the Psalms, p. 6.

[10] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[11] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 783–84.

[12] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 589–590.

[13] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 589–590.

[14] Constable, Notes on the Psalms, p. 17.

[15] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 783.

[16] Yahweh is the Israelite concept of God and of his working in history. It is used when the characteristics of God are clear and concrete. It suggests that God is personal and stands in relationship with people (TDOT, vol. 1, p. 284). Gen 2:4; Exod 3:13-15.

Elohim is used when referring to the abstract idea of the deity, universal God, creator of the world. It is used to describe God as more abstract and obscure. It further describes the transcendent nature of God (TDOT, vol. 1, p. 284).

[17] This name of God, “Yahweh” has been previously misunderstood to be “Jehovah,” (Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20).

[18] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[19] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20–21.

[20] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 104

[21] These psalms like to use the title of God, Elohim.

[22] These psalms like to use the divine name, Yahweh.

[23] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[24] Another way to say this is that the amount psalms, the obscurity of the use of the preposition, the unique words used, and the varying textual evidence makes this one of the most difficult elements in the study of psalms.

[25] These are Psalms 3, 17, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142.

[26] Again, I’m using the NASB for these superscriptions as I have throughout.

[27] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[28] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[29] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[30] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[31] Say as “neh-gee-note”

[32] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 20.

[33] See 1 Kings 4:31.

[34] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 579.

[35] Some psalms could have been written about the Davidic line.

[36] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 18.

[37] Various descriptions of the psalms have been adapted and altered from the descriptions in Brian L. Webster and David R. Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 16–18; Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 138–39; Allen, And I Will Praise Him, 28–40; Ross, BKC, 785–88; Ken Hanna, From Moses to Malachi, 281-287.

[38] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 15.

[39] “The Psalms generally do not center on new revelation, but rather on responses to earlier revelation. That is, the Psalms basically are the expressions of the believer who has heard the sure prophetic Word of God but who lives in the troubled cauldron of society. His responses are often two twofold: God is great, but life is tough!” (Allen, I Will Praise Him, 95). With that said, Allen continues: “It would be a mistake to press this distinction too far, of course. For in fact there are many Psalms in which there are new revelations, and there are several Psalms in which there are specific predictive prophecies. Yet viewed broadly, it is the primary function of the Psalms to respond to God, not to reveal new truth. It is quite important to assert at this point that the responses of the Psalms are inspired; they are in accord with reality, and they are consequent with truth in God” (p. 95).

[40] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 95.

[41] Brian L. Webster and David R. Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2010), 15.

[42] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[43] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 16.

[44] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 16.

[45] Ross, Bible Knowledge Commentary, 785.

[46] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 35.

[47] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[48] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 585.

[49] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 585.

[50] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[51] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 18.

[52] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 16.

[53] Tucker, “Book of Psalms 1”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 584.

[54] Ronald B. Allen, And I Will Praise Him (Nashville: 1992), 30.

[55] Ronald B. Allen, And I Will Praise Him (Nashville: 1992), 30.

[56] Ronald B. Allen, And I Will Praise Him (Nashville: 1992), 30.

[57] This element invites and instructs others to give praise to the Lord.

[58] In this section the psalmist provides the reasons or motives to give praise to God.

[59] Webster and Beach, Psalms Bible Companion, 16.

[60] Ross, Bible Knowledge, Commentary, 786.

[61] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

[62] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 17.

^[63]“Reading Hebrew poetry demands that the interpreter pay as much attention to the literary and aesthetic nature of the text as to the semantic range of individual words.” W. D. Tucker Jr., “Book of Psalms 1,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings, ed. Tremper Longman III and Peter Enns (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2008), 585.

[64] Brian Webster, The Cambridge Introduction to Biblical Hebrew, 296

[65] Mark Bailey, Bible Study Methods and Hermeneutics, BE101, DTS.

[66] Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Ryrie Study Bible: New American Standard Bible, 1995 Update, Expanded ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1995), 830.

[67] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[68] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 45.

[69] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 45.

[70] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 46.

[71] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 47.

[72] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 779.

[73] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[74] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[75] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 51.

[76] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[77] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 54.

[78] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[79] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[80] Leland Ryken, Sweeter than Honey, Richer Than God, 70–73.

[81] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 781.

[82] In addition to what I list below, some scholars also describe a “semantic aspect.”

[83] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 138.

[84] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 788.

[85] Constable, p. 18.

[86] Tucker, “Psalms 1: Book of”, Dictionary of OT: Wisdom, 592.

[87] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 139.

[88] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 25.

[89] Kreider, Svigel, and Yarbrough, Exploring Christian Scripture, 139.

[90] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 787.

[91] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 787.

^[92] Ross, “Psalms,” Bible Knowledge Commentary, 782.

[93] Ronald Allen, “Suffering in the Psalms and Wisdom Books” in Why, O God? Suffering and Disability in the Bible and the Church, ed. Larry Watters and Roy Zuck(Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2011), 137.

[94] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 11.

[95] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 17.

[96] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 18.

[97] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 26. 

[98] Allen, I Will Praise Him, 26.

^[99] Ross, “Psalms,” The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 778–779.

^[100] Ross, “Psalms,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

^[101] Ross, “Psalms,” The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 780.

[102] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 11.

[103] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 11.

[104] Webster and Beach, The Essential Bible Companion to the Psalms, 14.

The book of Galatians was a cornerstone in the Protestant Reformation. It’s known as a “short Romans” and has been called the “Magna Carta” of Christian liberty or the “Emancipation Proclamation of Christianity.” It is a “declaration of liberty and Christ.” As perhaps the first New Testament book written, it provides a glimpse into the doctrine and ministry not just of the apostle Paul, but the early church. If I was to assign a one-word description to the book of Galatians it would be “freeing” or “liberating.”

BIG IDEA. God’s grace is seen in the doctrine of justification by faith and liberty against legalism.[1]

KEY VERSES. I believe Galatians 2:16 is the key verse of this letter: “nevertheless knowing that a man is not justified by the works of the Law but through faith in Christ Jesus, even we have believed in Christ Jesus, so that we may be justified by faith in Christ and not by the works of the Law; since by the works of the Law no flesh will be justified” (NASB).[2] However, Galatians 3:16–17, 26–29, and Galatians 5:1 could also be seen as key verses too.

AUTHOR. Galatians tells us that Paul was the author (Gal 1:1; 5:2; 6:11). Paul tells his original readers that they should know that he wrote this letter because the “large letters” he uses matches what they know about him (Gal 6:11).  

            Galatians is the least challenged among Paul’s letters for him being the author. Galatians is part of what’s called the hauptbriefe, which is a list of letters in the New Testament that almost all scholars accept as written by Paul. The book of Romans, 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philippians, and Philemon are all seen as authentic letters written by Paul (even liberal scholars admit this). Galatians has been accepted as a letter of Paul by virtually everyone. FC Baur, who was the father of the famous Tubingen School, regarded Galatians as a letter Paul wrote. Louis Berkof writes, “The authorship of the Epistle need not be subject to doubt, since both the external and the internal evidence are very strong.”^[3]

            With that said, there are various elements of both “internal” and “external” evidence that supports Paul as the author. Let’s look at both. According to Douglas Moo, “the letter is full of corroborating personal references.”[4]

Internal Evidence. Galatians 1 and Galatians 2 are highly biographical and harmonize well with Acts. The theology of the book of Galatians is also consistent with Paul’s sermons recorded in the book of Acts. Here’s some other internal evidence that leads us to believe Paul was the author of this letter:

-The author of Galatians is the founder of the churches and is their spiritual father (Gal 4:19–20)

-The author of Galatians has experienced illness (Gal 4:13)

-The author of Galatians has impaired eyesight that required him to write in large letters (Gal 4:15; 6:11)

-The author of Galatians has outstanding credentials that were well known (Gal 1:13–14)

-The author of Galatians has a special calling to minister to the Gentiles (Gal 1:1; 2:7)

-The author of Galatians was violent against Christianity early in his career (Gal 1:23)

-The author of Galatians has physical scars of persecution because of his belief in Christ (Gal 6:17)

External Evidence. The Bible Knowledge Commentary states, “No doubt existed in the early church that this letter was written by Paul, and no doubt should exist today.”[5]

            In the second and third centuries Irenaeus (AD 140–202), Clement of Alexandria (AD 150–215), and Origen (AD 185–253) all said that Paul wrote Galatians.

            Galatians is quoted or alluded to in 1 Peter, Epistle of Barnabas (likely dated to AD 70–132), 1 Clement (AD 70–96), Polycarp’s letter to the Philippians (Polycarp lived AD 69–155), Justin Martyr (AD 100–165), Irenaeus (AD 140–202), Clement of Alexandria (AD 150–215), and Origin (AD 185–253).[6]

            I love this quote from Timothy George, “Jerome once said that when he read the letters of the apostle Paul he could hear thunder. Nowhere in the Pauline corpus is such stormy dissonance more evident than in the Epistle to the Galatians.”^[7]

AUDIENCE. Paul was writing to believers in “South Galatia” within Asia Minor. It was a “region” of people. Paul had planted the church there in Acts 13—14, then wrote this letter back to them between his first and second missionary journeys. Paul addresses his audience in Galatians 1:2, “and all the brethren who are with me, to the churches of Galatia.” With that said, the audience of this letter likely were Gentile readers.

            When reading the book of Galatians it’s clear that there has been a disruption in the church because of the teaching of the Judaizers. These Judaizers were enslaving the people in legalism to the Law of Moses. However, the audience of the letter might change slightly depending on the “destination” of this letter. We encounter a problem because the word “Galatia” had two distinct meanings in the New Testament era.

            As we look at the “north” and “south” audiences, it’s important to note that Paul’s ministry took him to both regions at different times which resulted in different outcomes. The two different locations does not necessarily affect the topic of Paul’s writing, but they do change the time of his writing and the place of the Jew-Gentile controversy as described in Acts 15.

“North” Ethnic (People) Geographical Region. If Paul uses “Galatia” for the northern region then he used the word to refer to the “people” that lived there. This is called the “ethnic geographical region” label. If this destination is correct, Paul would have written the letter from Corinth during his third missionary journey in approximately AD 55 or AD 56. This is commonly called the “North Galatian Theory.” If this is true, then the visit described in Galatians 2 corresponds to Acts 15.

            The “Celtic” people lived in the “north” region. These Celtic tribes moved there from ancient Gaul. They attacked and nearly destroyed Rome in 390 BC. They called it the region of “Galatia” from the word “Gaul.” (Makes sense, right?) These people were located in the mountains in the north. It had no major cities and no Jewish population (if any, it was very small). According to Acts, Paul did not visit this region until the beginning of his second missionary journey (Acts 16). On this visit, they only traveled through Phrygia and Galatia (Acts 16:5).  

            This “north” view was the traditional view of the church for many centuries, but is less popular today.

“South” Political Region. In 189 BC the Gauls were conquered and the area became a province of Rome. This process of conquest and assimilation was completed in 25 BC because Augustus declared the region an official Roman province and called it “Galatia.” Thus, it was the “province” of Galatia, not just the people. This “province” extended to the south and incorporated parts of Lycaonia, Phrygia, and Pisidia. This was the location of Paul’s first missionary trip to the Gentiles that’s described in Acts 13—14 which occurred in AD 47–49. It’s important to note that Paul’s first and second missionary journeys were separated by three years as one was before the Jerusalem council (Acts 15) and the other was after the Jerusalem council.

            If we were to focus on the “political” meaning of the word “Galatia” we could also include the cities of Lystra, Derbe, and Iconium. Paul had visited these cities on his first missionary journey. If this view is correct, then the Jerusalem visit recorded in Galatians 2 is not the same Jerusalem visit recorded in Acts 15. Instead, Galatians 2 records an earlier visit Paul made to Jerusalem (either Acts 9:26 or Acts 11:30) before we read what occurred in Acts 15.

            Sir William Ramsey did extensive archaeological work that led to this view. This “south” view is the predominant view today among evangelical protestant scholars.

DATE. Galatians was likely written during the three years between Paul’s first and second missionary journeys. Paul likely wrote Galatians from the city of Antioch (see Acts 14:28) before the Jerusalem council (Acts 15), but after Paul’s visit to Jerusalem in AD 46–48 (Acts 11:30). The date of Galatians is a complex topic. Let’s examine the different views below.

An Introduction to the Proposed Dates of Galatians. Three possible dates for the writing of Galatians are proposed by G. W. Hansen, “The dating of Galatians is a notorious and for some a fascinating historical puzzle. But the outcome of the protracted debate about the date has little if any effect on the interpretation of the major themes of the letter” One date is A.D. 53-57 (if letter was written after the second missionary journey of Acts 18:22). A second option is A.D. 49 (if letter was written immediately after the first missionary journey but before Jerusalem Conference). A third option is A.D. 50-57 (if Gal 2:1-10 = Acts 15:1-20, after the Jerusalem conference).”[8]

            I have several pages of hand-written notes on the date of Paul’s letter to the Galatians. Here’s my best attempt to summarize the different views on the date of this letter. Earlier in this work I’ve listed the “north” and “south” views briefly based on the audience intended for the letter. Here I will attempt to list the support for and weaknesses of each view. I hope this is helpful for you.

South Galatia “Political Province” View: AD 49.[9]

Support

1. A trip traveling to and establishing churches in south Galatia matches Paul’s practice of strategically traveling to influential and well populated cities that had significant Jewish populations. The north Galatia area was smaller, more obscure, and had less Jews.
2. The book of Galatians contains descriptive details that match details of Paul’s first missionary journey recorded in Acts 13—14 throughout Galatia. First, reception of Paul as an “angel of God” might match the attempted worship of Paul and Barnabas at Lyionian cities of Lystra and Derbe (Acts 14:6–18). Second, the physical mark of suffering (Gal 6:17) might reference the scars Paul received by being stoned (Acts 14:19–20).
3. Galatians 2:1–10 addresses an issue which the council of Jerusalem in Acts 15 would have solved. The logical conclusion is that Acts 15 was after Galatians 2. Additionally, Galatians 2 indicates a private conversation, while Acts 15 was a public assembly.
4. Galatians 2:1 says Paul went “again” to Jerusalem, which suggests this was at least Paul’s second visit. That second (or third) visit could be after the first (or second) visit as described in Acts 11:30. Acts also records a visit in Acts 9:26 which could have been the first.
5. Barnabas is mentioned three times in Galatians (Gal 2:1, 9, 13) in a way that suggests the audience was familiar with him. This could only be true if Paul had went to the Galatians on his first missionary journey because Paul and Barnabas had split up before the second missionary journey began.
6. If Paul was suffering from an illness in Galatia (Gal 4:13) and was there to recover, then the “North Galatia” theory is unlikely. North Galatia was far north, it was off the beaten path, and it was a difficult place to travel.
7. It is possible, that Paul never went to the northern Galatian region. If Acts 16:6 and Acts 18:23 are referring to a political region instead of a geographical region, then Paul (according to Acts) never went to North Galatia.
8. The word “Galatians” was the only word that would describe the people in Antioch, Lystra, Iconium, and Derbe.

Weaknesses

1. The main weakness of this view is that it does not have church history behind it. For most of church history, the “north Galatia” view was prominent. This is a personal struggle for me and must not be overlooked. According to Donald Guthrie, “Since the nineteenth century many scholars have advocated this view, but it was Sir William Ramsay who popularized it and gave it its most cogent expression.”^[10]

North Galatia “Ethnic Geographical Region” View: AD 55–56.[11]

Support and Strengths

1. This is perhaps the most natural meaning of “Galatia” or “Galatians” as used in Galatians 1:2 and Galatians 3:1. This was the geographical region in north Asia Minor. The people that lived there used those terms.
2. Luke tends to describe places in Acts according to geographical region instead of political province. Examples of this are Pamphylia (Acts 13:13), Pisidia (Acts 13:14), and Lycaonia (Acts 14:6) which are geographical terms. Thus, it’s likely that Paul used “Phrygian and Galatian region” in Acts 16:16 as a geographical region too.
3. If Paul visited the geographical districts of “north” Galatia in Acts 16:6 and Acts 18:23, then he went there twice and possibly established churches there, which he could write letters to.
4. The natural reading of Galatians 2:1–10 is to refer to Acts 15.
5. No other view existed until Sir William Ramsay introduced his “south” Galatia view in the nineteenth century.

Weaknesses

1. While no other view was held in the church until the nineteenth century under Sir William Ramsay, it is not surprising that patristic, medieval, and reformation commentaries assumed Paul wrote his letter to the Northern region because southern Galatia was reduced in size and significance by the Roman government in AD 74, 137, and 197.

ACCEPTANCE INTO THE CANON. The book of Galatians was accepted into the Canon very early in the history of the Christian church. There are references to it (as I’ve shown above) in Barnabas, 1 Clement, Polycarp, and Justin Martyr. There was no dispute about the book of Galatians’ genuineness in early times.  

            The theologian Louis Berkof writes, “There has never been any serious doubt respecting the canonicity of this Epistle. It was received as authoritative in all sections of the Church from the very earliest times. There are allusions to its language in the apostolic fathers, Clement of Rome, Polycarp and Ignatius. Justin Martyr, Melito and Athanagoras seem to have known it; and some of the heretics, especially the Ophites, used it extensively. It is found in Marcions canon, is named in the Muratorian Fragment, and the Syriac and old Latin versions contain it. From the end of the second century the quotations multiply and increase in directness and definiteness.”^[12]

THE “JUDAIZERS” IN GALATIANS. The people whom Paul identifies as his opponents and enemies in this letter probably came from Jerusalem. They likely were Jews who claimed to be Christians and wanted Christians to submit to the authority of the Mosaic Law.

            Often I called these “Judaizers” as the “Legalizers” when preaching to a congregation. In Galatians 6:12–13 Paul gives a good commentary on these people. He says that what the Legalizers (Judaizers) were doing describes the human effort of worldly people. The Legalizers believed they were saved through their merit instead of through God’s mercy.

According to Paul, the Legalizers were only interested in pleasing men. Paul writes that they wanted “to make a good showing in the flesh” (Gal 6:12a). That good impression came from getting the Galatians circumcised (Gal 6:12b).

According to Paul, the Legalizers were afraid of persecution. The passage continues, “so that they will not be persecuted for the cross of Christ” (Gal 6:12c). To avoid persecution seems a little odd. But if we think in their time, requiring people to be circumcised prevented persecution from two groups of people: Jews and Romans. Having everyone get circumcised pleased the Jews because it meant that the people weren’t joining a competing faith or a new faith. Instead they were submitting to the old established religion of the times. Faith in Christ for salvation that included circumcision appeased the rules, regulations, and restrictions of the rabbis of the established Jewish system of that time.[13] The Romans had accepted Judaism as a legal religion in the Empire. Any Gentile that was circumcised would fall under the category of Judaism and wouldn’t experience persecution. To reject circumcision and take the name of a “Christian”  would mean you weren’t protected under the legal umbrella of Judaism in Roman law. So the Legalizers did have a valid point: to get circumcised greatly reduced the chance of persecution.[14]

According to Paul, the Legalizers wanted to boast because of the number of converts they had. Paul writes, “they desire to have you circumcised so that they may boast in your flesh” (Gal 6:13c). The Legalizers wanted to claim the Galatians as their own. “They only want you to be circumcised so they can boast of their success in recruiting you to their side” (The Message). The Legalizers wanted to point to the Galatians as their “catch” much like a bass angler or big game hunter that wants to display the big fish or the big elk. For the Legalizers their big catch was this group of Galatian believers that Paul had evangelized, but now they were getting “caught” up in their teaching about the Law and how they needed to follow the Law.

According to Paul, the Legalizers had built their teachings around four key beliefs. Paul was surprised to learn that the Galatians had deserted his teachings for a false gospel (Gal 1:6). Based on what we read in Galatians (not cultural speculation), I think we can identify four key teachings of the Judaizers. One, that righteousness comes through obedience to the Law (Gal 2:15-21), two that the Holy Spirit came through works of the Law (Gal 3:1-3), three that righteousness comes through following the Jewish calendar’s festivals and events (Gal 4:8-11) such as Passover, Pentecost, Purim, etc., four that favor comes from God through circumcision (Gal 5:2-6; 6:12-13).

Conclusion about Judaizers. This is a long but important quote from FF Bruce,“Galatians was plainly written to converts of Paul’s who were in imminent danger of adulterating the gospel of Christian freedom which he had taught them with elements of Jewish legalism. Among these elements circumcision took a chief place; they also included the observance of the Jewish calendar (Gal. 4:10) and possibly Jewish food-laws. The ‘churches of Galatia’ had evidently been visited by Judaizers who cast doubt on Paul’s apostolic status and insisted that, in addition to the faith in Christ which he inculcated, it was necessary to be circumcised and to conform in other respects to the Jewish law in order to attain salvation. When news of this reached Paul he wrote this letter in white-hot urgency, denouncing this teaching which mingled grace and law as a different gospel from that which he had preached to them in Christ’s name—in fact, no gospel at all—and entreating his readers to stand fast in their new-found liberty and not place their necks again under a yoke of bondage.”^[15]

THEMES. I believe there are four themes woven throughout this letter. Each of the themes relates to a “correction” Paul is trying to make with this audience.

Correcting the Misunderstanding of Paul’s Life. Paul wanted the Galatians to know about his past life as a Jew but also how he prepared for ministry. Based on my study I believe there are ten different “biographical sections” in Galatians that often begin with the first-person personal pronoun “I” (Gal 1:1, 10, 13–14, 16–19, 21–24; 2:1–2, 7; 4:12–14; 5:11; 6:17).[16] Timothy George comments, “Galatians contains one of the most important autobiographical reflections anywhere in the writings of Paul.”^[17]

Correcting the False Gospel. Paul had taught the Galatians the correct gospel, but they had been led astray by Judaizers. The word “gospel” is used ten times in Galatians (Gal 1:6, 7, 8, 9, 11; 2:2, 5, 7, 14; 4:13).

Correcting the False Interpretation of the Law. Paul validates the purpose of the Law and how it has been fulfilled through Christ. The word “Law” is used twenty-nine times in Galatians (Gal 2:16 [2t], 19 [2t], 21; 3:2, 5, 10 [2t], 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 19, 21 [3t], 23. 24; 4:4, 5, 21 [2t]; 5:3, 4, 14, 18; 6:13).

Correcting the Significance of Jesus’s Death. If the Law had been fulfilled, it was because of Jesus’s perfect substitution. In Paul’s letter he tells us that Jesus Christ gave himself for our sins (Gal 1:4a), Jesus Christ has rescued us from this world (Gal 1:4b), and that was a gift from God (Gal 1:4c).

OUTLINES OF GALATIANS

I. FOLLOWING GOD’S LAW (Gal 1—3)

A. Paul’s Past in Religion (Gal 1).

1. Substance of the Gospel (vv. 1-10). These ten verses are Paul’s groundwork for this letter and most of what he will write in the New Testament. In this section we learn about how the gospel is described and defended (vv. 4, 6) and we learn about the gospel defectors (vv. 6–9).

• Greetings (vv. 1-5)
• Good News (vv. 6-9)
• Goal (v. 10)

2. Source of the Gospel (vv. 11-24). The Gospel message, according to Paul, was not according to man (v. 11), was not received from man (v. 12a), was not taught to him (v. 12b), but it was revealed to him by Jesus Christ (v. 12c). I like the description of Galatians 1:11—2:21 as “Paul’s Gospel Defended (What God Has Done: Revelation).”[18]

• From Jesus (vv. 11-12)
• From Judaism (vv. 13-14)
• From Jehovah God (vv. 15-17)
• From Jerusalem (vv. 18-20)
• From Judah (vv. 21-24)

B. Paul’s Preparation for Ministry (Gal 2). I like the Bible Knowledge Commentary’s outline of Galatians which labels Galatians 1:11–2:21 as PERSONAL (a defense of Paul’s authority), Galatians 3–4 as DOCTRINAL (a defense of justification by faith), and Galatians 5:1—6:10 as PRACTICAL (a defense of Christian liberty).[19]

1. Meeting with Church Leaders (vv 1-10)

• Agreement from Leaders (vv. 1-3)
• Disagreement from False Brothers (vv. 4-5)
• Encouragement from Leaders (vv. 6-10)

2. Meeting with the Church Leader (vv.  11-21)

• Peter’s Conforming (vv. 11-13)
• Peter’s Confrontation (vv. 14-16)
• Peter’s Correction (vv. 17-21)

C. Paul’s Preaching on Religion and Faith (Gal 3).[20] While Galatians 1—2 describes the ministry of Paul, Galatians 3—4 describes the ministry of the Law. Galatians 1—2 have focused on Paul and the Law, now we will read about Christ and the Holy Spirit in Galatians 3—4. Again, I like the description of Galatians 1:11—2:21 as “Paul’s Gospel Defended (What God Has Done: Revelation)” and Galatians 3:1—4:31 as “Paul’s Gospel Defined (What God Wants Us to Know: Instruction).” [21]

1. Abraham’s Faith: Saved Because of Faith (vv. 1-9). Notice the various questions Paul asks after he assesses the situation (v. 1): The Spirit Question (v. 2) – “How did you receive the Holy Spirit?” The Sanctification Question (v. 3) – “How are you growing in your Christian walk?” The Suffering Question (v. 4) – “Did you suffer in vain?” The Supernatural Question (v. 5) – “How did God perform miracles in and among you?”

2. Abraham’s Seed: Saved Because of One Man/Father (vv. 10-18)

3. Abraham’s Descendants: Saved Because of One Son (vv. 19-29). It might be better to take Galatians 3:15–29 together as one unit. If we do, here’s how I’d outline the text: seed (vv. 15–16; cf. Gen 3:15), sacrifice (vv. 17–18; cf. Gen 15:7–21), sin (vv. 19–22; Exod 19:6), salvation (vv. 23–25), sanctification (vv. 26–29). Note the emphasis on our relationship to Christ: “in Christ Jesus” (vv. 26, 28), “into Christ” (v. 27a), and “with Christ” (v. 27b). Many people see Galatians 3:26–29 as the heart of Paul’s argument in chapters three through four. In fact, some believe Galatian 3:26–29 is the heart of Paul’s letter. In Galatians 3:26–29 Paul shifts to using the second-person plural form of address “you” which suggests he’s applying his argument of Galatians 3:7–25 directly to the Gentile Christians.  The language Paul uses in Galatians 3:26–28 is also used in Paul’s other letters. Compare Galatians 3:26 with Romans 8:14–17, Galatians 3:27 with Romans 6:3–4; 13:14, and Galatians 3:28 with 1 Corinthians 12:13 and Colossians 3:11. Because of these similarities some people believe Paul is quoting an early liturgical baptismal fragment.[22] Some have advocated for this view because you can remove vv. 26–27, and v. 26, and v. 28 appear to blend well without any interruption in Paul’s thought or syntax.  However, I believe it’s probably just Paul saying the same things to different people in different contexts.[23]

II. FOLLOWING GOD’S SON AND SPIRIT (Gal 4—6)

A. Christ’s Children (Gal 4).

1. At One Time (4:1-11)

• Slaves to this World (vv. 1-3)
• Slaves Freed by the Son (vv. 4-7)
• Slaves to Other gods (vv. 8-11)

2. At Paul’s Time with Them (4:12-20)

• Free from the Law (vv. 12-13)
• Free to Do What is Right (vv. 14-16)
• Free from False Teachers (vv. 17-20)

3. At Abraham’s Time (4:21-31)

• Abraham’s Two Sons (vv. 21-23)
• Abraham’s Two Women (vv. 24-27)
• Abraham’s Two Descendants (vv. 28-31)

B. Christ’s Freedom and the Holy Spirit’s Power (Gal 5). We could also call this chapter “Christ’s Fruit.” While Galatians 1—2 describes the ministry of Paul and Galatians 3—4 describes the ministry of the Law, now in Galatians 5—6 we read about the ministry of Christ. Galatians 1—2 have focused on Paul and the Law, Galatians 3—4 have focused on Christ and the Holy Spirit, now Galatians 5—6 focuses on Christians and the church. I like the one-word descriptions by Warren Wiersbe for Galatians as “Personal” (grace and the gospel in chapters 1—2), “Doctrinal” (grace and the Law in chapters 3—4), and “Practical” (grace and the Christian life in chapters 5—6). Again, I like the description of Galatians 1:11—2:21 as “Paul’s Gospel Defended (What God Has Done: Revelation)”, Galatians 3:1—4:31 as “Paul’s Gospel Defined (What God Wants Us to Know: Instruction”, and Galatians 5:1—6:16 as “Paul’s Gospel Practiced (What God Calls Us to Do: Ethics)”.[24]

1. Old vs. New (5:1-6). The first twelve verses of galatians 5 describe a life apart from the law. Paul teaches us that turning to the law ruins grace (vv. 1–2), makes man a debtor (v. 3), is a fall away from grace (vv. 4–6), hinders the progress of believers (vv. 7–10), and removes the offense of the cross (vv. 11–12).[25]

• Through Christ (v. 1). Gal 5:1 is a summary of Gal 4 which was about bondage and freedom. Really, Gal 5:1 is summarizing all that Paul argued and exhorted from Gal 1:6—4:31. Gal 5:1 serves as a preface for what Paul will write in Gal 5:2–12.
• Through Circumcision (vv. 2-4)
• Through the Spirit (vv. 5-6)

2. Past vs. Present (5:7-15)

• Their Struggle (vv. 7-10)
• Paul’s Striving (vv. 11-12)
• Our Goal/Target (vv. 13-15). Douglas Moo sees a new section of the letter begin in Galatians 5:13: the life of the gospel. In this section, according to Moo, Paul reveals the basic pattern of the new life, which is serving one another in love (Gal 5:13–15). Paul reveals implementation of the new life, which is walking by the Spirit (Gal 5:16–24). Paul reveals specific parameters of the new life (Gal 5:25—6:6) and urgency o living the new life (Gal 6:7–10).[26]

3. Flesh vs. Spirit (5:16-26). In this section we read about the goal (vv. 16-18), the deeds of the flesh (vv. 19-21), the duty of the Spirit (vv. 22-24), and the way we live (vv. 25-26). There is a possible chiastic structure we could observe here:

A – Assurance about the flesh (vv. 16–17)

            B – Those led by the Spirit are not under the law (v. 18)

                        C – The “works” of the flesh (vv. 19–21)

                        C’ – The fruit of the Spirit (vv. 22–23a)

            B’ – No law stands against the fruit of the Spirit (v. 23b)

A’ – Assurance about the flesh (v. 24)[27]

C. Christ’s Harvest (Gal 6)

1. Giving Help to Fallen Brothers (6:1-5)

• Be Gentle (v. 1)
• Be Realistic (vv. 2-3)
• Be Focused (vv. 4-5)

2. Giving Help to Believers (6:6-10)

• Giving to Teachers of the Word (v. 6)
• Sowing Good (vv. 7-9)
• Giving to Those in the Household (v. 10)

3. Giving Help to the Gospel (6:11-18)

• Personal Appeal (v. 11)
• Position of the Gospel (vv. 12-16)
• Passion for Christ (vv. 17-18)

A couple other simple ways to outline the book would be:

I. THE MINISTRY OF PAUL (Gal 1—2)

II. THE MINISTRY OF THE LAW (Gal 3—4)

III. THE MINISTRY OF CHRIST (Gal 5—6)

I. PAUL AND THE LAW (Gal 1—2)

II. CHRIST AND THE HOLY SPIRIT (Gal 3—4)

III. CHRISTIANS AND THE CHURCH (Gal 5—6)

I. PERSONAL (Gal 1—2). In these two chapters we see lots of the word “I”, “me”, and “my”. Those words described Paul’s transition from following the Law to following the Liberty provided in Christ.

II. DOCTRINAL (Gal 3—4). In these two chapters we see lots of Old Testament quotations, references, and allusions that described how saints used to live under the Law, but now were saved by their faith in Christ.

III. APPLICATIONAL (Gal 5—6). In these two chapters we see lots of verbs, commands, and words like “you” that describe what we’re supposed to do with that freedom.

APPLICATIONS

1. Let go of legalism. It’s human nature to want to “work for things.” And that’s what the Galatians were starting to think. Paul’s message to them was to let go of legalism and accept God’s grace. We as Christians need to be cautious of false teachers that overly emphasize the Law and festivals of the Old Testament more than the free gift of grace and salvation of the New Testament. It should not surprise us, that even in our evangelical churches, that legalistic people sneak in and try to impose their will on us (see Gal 2:3–5 where false brethren were brought in to spy out the true liberty that Christians have [v. 4b] and to put the true Christians in bondage under the Law [v. 4c]). Pastor Charles Swindoll writes, “The Christian life is not about working as hard as we can to live right; it’s about allowing Christ Himself to live out His life through us.”[28] And that’s based on faith. One commentary asserts, “The church of Jesus Christ needs the message of Galatians now as much as perhaps any time in its history. Alternative gospels abound within the realm of Christendom. Western Christianity in particular is at times shallow and individualistic, cast in terms that are more anthropocentric, existential, and serendipitous than being explained biblically in terms of self-denial and taking up one’s cross.”^[29]
2. Let God’s Holy Spirit guide your life. The Law no longer guides our lives. Now we follow God’s Son and the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is mentioned fifteen times in this short six-chapter book. We bear fruit for God because the Holy Spirit lives in us and because the Holy Spirit leads us. Robert Rapa writes, “The simplicity of the truth of the person, word, and work of Jesus Christ is today under siege in various places and in diverse ways. The premise of Galatians—salvation by the grace of God through faith in Jesus Christ—must be reclaimed as the church’s indispensable bedrock on which to stand and to build.”^[30]

SOME OF MY FAVORITE QUOTES ON GALATIANS

Max Lucado, “The reason the letter of Galatians is in your Bible is because Paul couldn’t stomach diluted grace.”[31]

            Donald Campbell, “Galatians, though one of Paul’s shorter epistles, is highly esteemed as one of his greatest and most influential.”^[32]

            Robert Rapa, “The book of Galatians stands out in Christian history—and thus in the history of the Western world—as of major importance. This little book (149 verses) helped to launch the Protestant Reformation, as in it was rediscovered by Martin Luther and others the doctrine of justification by grace alone through faith alone. As a result of its message and its influence, it has been called “the Magna Carta of Christian Liberty,” and this expression sums up well the theme of the book.”^[33]

            Timothy George, “During the Protestant Reformation, Galatians and Romans became the bedrock of a Pauline renaissance as Luther, Calvin, and other Reformers rallied around the doctrine of justification by faith over against a compromised theology of grace in the prevailing Roman Catholic systems of the day.”^[34]

            Louis Berkof, “The purpose of the author in writing this Epistle was, of course, twofold. In order that his words might be effective, it was necessary, first of all, that he should defend his apostolic authority by proving that God had called him and had imparted the truth of the gospel to him by means of a direct revelation. And in the second place it was incumbent on him that he should expose the Judaeistic error by which they were led astray, and should defend the doctrine of justification by faith.”^[35]

Sermon Series from Galatians: “Gospel Groundwork”

1. A Hill Worth Dying On (Gal 1:1–10)
2. One Source for Many Stories (Gal 1:11–24)
3. A Gospel Get Together (Gal 2:1–10)
4. When a Leader Loses His Way (Gal 2:11–24)
5. Faithful Faith (Gal 3:1–14)
6. When God Follows Through (Gal 3:15–29)
7. Kingdom Inheritors (Gal 4:1–10)
8. Freedom Fighters (Gal 4:12–20)
9. The Bible Tells Me So (Gal 4:21–31)
10. Love and Liberty for All (Gal 5:1–15)
11. Your Walking Companion (Gal 5:16–26)
12. We That Are Spiritual (Gal 6:1–10)
13. Living It and Loving It (Gal 6:11–18)

Other Sermons from Galatians

• The Fruit Moms Serve (Gal 5:22–23)
• More Than a Dad (Gal 3:26–27)
• The Declaration of Christian Freedom (Gal 5:1)

Articles from Galatians

1. The Source of Paul’s Story (Gal 1:11-12)
2. Showing the Source of Your Story (Gal 1:13-24)
3. Eager to Help the Poor (Gal 2:1-2, 7-10)
4. Treating Everyone the Same (Gal 2:11-13)
5. Faithful Faith (Gal 3:6, 9)
6. God Keeps His Promises (Gal 3:23-25; cf. Gen 3:15; 12:1-3)
7. Refusing to Drift (Gal 4:16-20)
8. God Keeps His Promises (Gal 4:24-31)
9. Freedom Through Service (Gal 5:13-15)
10. We That Are Spiritual (Gal 6:1-2, 10)
11. Love for the Liberated Life (Gal 6:15-17)

Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

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[1] Another big idea might be: Salvation is available to every person only by faith in Jesus Christ without obedience to the Law.

[2] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

^[3] L Berkhof, New Testament Introduction (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans-Sevensma Co., 1915), 178.

[4] Douglas J. Moo, Galatians, BECNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2013), 1.

[5] Donald K. Campbell, “Galatians” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. by J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 187.

[6] This list is adapted from Daniel Wallace, “9. Galatians: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” Bible.org, June 27, 2004, https://bible.org/seriespage/galatians-introduction-argument-and-outline.

^[7] Timothy George, Galatians, vol. 30, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1994), 21.

[8] G. W. Hansen, “Letter to the Galatians,” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, edited by Gerald Hawthrorne, Ralph Martin, Daniel Reid (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 328-29.

[9] Much of the material in this section is adapted from Daniel Wallace, “9. Galatians: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,” Bible.org, June 27, 2004, https://bible.org/seriespage/galatians-introduction-argument-and-outline. Also see Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, rev. ed. (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity, 1996), 466-72; D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 458–61.

^[10] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 468.

[11] Much of the material in this section is adapted from Wallace, “Galatians: Introduction, Argument, and Outline,”; Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 466-72; Carson and Moo, New Testament Introduction, 458–61.

^[12] Berkhof, New Testament Introduction, 187.

[13] Charles Swindoll Insights on Galatians, Ephesians, Swindoll’s Living Insights New Testament Commentary, vol. 8 (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2015), 144.

[14] Swindoll Insights on Galatians, Ephesians, 144.

^[15] F. F. Bruce, “Galatians, Epistle to” in New Bible Dictionary (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 392–393.

[16] Galatians 1 and 2 are largely biographical. Galatians 1:1 tells us that Paul was a true apostle appointed by God, not man. “Paul, an apostle (not sent from men nor through the agency of man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father, who raised Him from the dead),” (Gal 1:1). Apparently there were people in Galatia teaching that Paul was not a true apostle/messenger of the Gospel because his authority was appointed by men. And because he was getting that information from men, it was not correct. Paul makes it clear he says what he says and does what he does not to earn the approval of men, but to please God (Gal 1:10).

^[17] George, Galatians, NAC, 23.

[18] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, ed., Exploring Christian Scripture (Brentwood, TN: B & H Academic, 2024), 293.

[19] Campbell, “Galatians” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 591, 596, 604.

[20] Perhaps another way to outline this section: 1. The Law and Faith in Christ (3:1-14): a) Belief Brings the Holy Spirit (1-5), b) Belief Gives Righteousness (6-9), c) Belief Removes the Curse (10-14). 2. The Law and God’s Promise to Abraham (3:15-29): a) What Promise Was Given to Abraham (15-18), b)   Why the Law Was Given (19-23), c) Who God’s People Are (24-29).

[21] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, ed., Exploring Christian Scripture (Brentwood, TN: B & H Academic, 2024), 293.

[22] See Richard Longenecker, Galatians, WBC 41 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 1990), 154–55; TDNT 2.319.

[23] Moo, Galatians, 249.

[24] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, ed., Exploring Christian Scripture (Brentwood, TN: B & H Academic, 2024), 293-94.

[25] Campbell, “Galatians” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 589.

[26] Moo, Galatians, 64.

[27] J. D. G. Dunn, The Epistle to the Galatians (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson: 1993), 295. Quoted in Moo, Galatians, 351–352.

[28] Swindoll Insights on Galatians, Ephesians, 54.

^[29] Robert K. Rapa, “Galatians,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Romans–Galatians (Revised Edition), ed. Tremper Longman III & Garland, David E., vol. 11 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 550.

^[30] Rapa, “Galatians,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Romans–Galatians, 550.

[31] Max Lucado, In the Grip of Grace (Dallas, TX: Word Publishing, 1996), 136.  

^[32] Campbell, “Galatians,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary, 587.

^[33] Rapa, “Galatians,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Romans–Galatians, 549.

^[34] George, Galatians, NAC, 68.

^[35] Berkhof, New Testament Introduction, 185–186.

The letter we know as 1 Peter is very different than other letters most of us are familiar with in the New Testament. Peter—as different than Paul—mixes “imperative”[1] verbs with “indicative” verbs. Furthermore, almost every paragraph of 1 Peter opens with a command. (The only paragraphs that do not open with a command are 1 Peter 1:3–9 and 2:4–10.) Even though 1 Peter was written to people outside of Palestine, he relies heavily on the Old Testament, quoting from it eight times.[2] Peter writes to people that question their faith and are unsure of their faith because of the suffering that they are enduring. If I was to summarize this book in one word it would be “suffering.”

BIG IDEA: Christians everywhere are going to experience the grace of God, the peace of God, the suffering of God, and growth in God.

KEY VERSE: “In this you greatly rejoice, even though now for a little while, if necessary, you have been distressed by various trials, so that the proof of your faith, being more precious than gold which is perishable, even though tested by fire, may be found to result in praise and glory and honor at the revelation of Jesus Christ” (1 Peter 1:6–7, NASB).[3] Some people believe 1 Peter 5:12 serves as a good purpose statement of the letter, and I would agree that could be as well.

PURPOSE. It appears to me that Peter writes this letter to educate his audience about their suffering, to encourage them as they endure that suffering, and to equip them as they endure suffering.

            I agree with Donald Guthrie when he writes, “The keynote of the letter is hope and Peter wishes to exhort these Christians to live in accordance with the hope they have received through Christ. He gives practical guidance to assist in their human relationships and particularly exhorts them to endure suffering in a joyful manner for Christ’s sake. His main purpose is, therefore, hortatory, but not infrequently he introduces theological considerations which press home the ethical injunctions. In particular he presents the work of Christ as a stimulus for the Christian endurance of suffering, while at the same time drawing out more fundamental aspects of its meaning. In this way he shows the indissoluble link between doctrine and practice.”[4]

            Often 1 Peter 5:12 is seen as the purpose of the letter, “Through Silvanus, our faithful brother (for so I regard him), I have written to you briefly, exhorting and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand firm in it!”

            In their fantastic work, The New Testament in Its World, N. T. Wright and Michael Bird write, “1 Peter is much like James: it is a Diaspora letter with a mixture of exhortation and consolation. It was written to exhort Christians in Asia Minor to maintain their faith in the midst of social scorn, shaming, slander, and stigma.”[5]

            The Bible Knowledge Commentary tells us, “This epistle could be understood as a handbook written for ambassadors to a hostile foreign land. The author, knowing persecution would arise, carefully prescribed conduct designed to bring honor to the One they represented. The purpose then of 1 Peter was to encourage Christians to face persecution so that the true grace of Jesus Christ would be evidenced in them (5:12).”[6]

AUTHOR: First Peter 1:1 tells us the author is “Peter,” who is “an apostle of Jesus Christ.”[7] This man was a witness of Christ’s sufferings (1 Pet 5:1). This is the only man in the New Testament called Peter.

The Man Peter. Peter was a member of a family of fishermen. They lived in Bethsaida and later in Capernaum. It appears Jesus Christ singled out Peter many times for specific teaching and lessons (Matt 10; 16:13–31; 17:1–9; 24:1–7; 26:31–33; John 6:6; 21:3–7, 15–17).

Names for Peter in Scripture. Peter’s original name was “Simon” (his Greek name) or “Simeon” (his Hebrew name) according to Mark 1:16 and John 1:40, 41. Jesus Christ later renamed (John 1:42) him as “Peter” (his Greek name) or “Cephas” (his Aramaic name). Both words mean “stone” or “rock” (see John 1:42).

The Apostle Peter. It appears, at least from what we read in the gospels and Acts, that Peter was the leader among Christ’s apostles. Matthew, Mark, and Luke, all put Peter at the head of each list of the apostles (see Matt 10; Mark 3; Luke 6; Acts 1).

Peter’s Travels and Death. Peter, as described in the early chapters of Acts, was a key leader in the early church in Judea and Samaria. Tradition tells us that Peter eventually travelled to Rome. It was in Rome that Peter was martyred among Emperor Nero’s famous persecution of Christians (see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 2.25.5; 3.1.2; 3.30.2).[8]

            As we determine the authorship of New Testament letters, it’s helpful to categorize the evidence about authorship into both internal and external evidence. Let’s take a look at both of those separately.

Internal Evidence. When you read 1 Peter it’s clear this author was familiar with Jesus’s teachings because thirty-two passages of 1 Peter directly parallel Jesus’s teachings in the gospels.[9]

            The author of 1 Peter appears deeply and personally impacted by Jesus’s death on the cross (1:8–20; 3:18; 4:1). The author of 1 Peter refers to himself as an eyewitness of Christ’s earthly ministry (1 Pet 1:8; 2:23; 5:1). Jesus’s commission to Peter in John 21:15–19 matches the commitment of 1 Peter 5:1–4.

            Many of the of ideas and terms used by the author of 1 Peter match ideas and terms used by Peter in the book of Acts. For example, the Greek word for wood, xulon, is used in 1 Peter 2:24 as well as Peter in Acts 5:30; 10:39. Another example is the use of “stone” by the author of 1 Peter in 1 Peter 2:7–8 (adapted from Pss 118:22) is also used by Peter in Acts 4:10–11.[10] This is an interesting connection because Peter was present with Jesus Christ when Jesus used Psalm 118:22 to refer to the Jewish leaders’ rejection of Jesus (Matt 21:42). There are also other parallels between this letter and Peter’s sermons that Luke records in Acts (see 1 Pet 1:20 compared to Acts 2:23; 1 Peter 4:5 compared to Acts 10:42).

            The comparison between 1 Peter and Peter’s sermons recorded in the book of Acts cannot be ignored.

• Acts 2:16–21 is similar to 1 Peter 1:10 regarding the fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy.
• Acts 2:17 is similar to 1 Peter 1:20 regarding Christ’s fulfillment in the last days.
• Acts 2:27 is similar to 1 Peter 1:20 regarding God knowing Christ before the world was created and how God plans to send the Son to die for our sins.
• Acts 2:24–32 is similar to 1 Peter 3:19 regarding Christ’s triumph over hades.
• Acts 2:31–32 is similar to 1 Peter 1:21[11] regarding the connection to the resurrection and exaltation of Christ.

            These comparisons lead Donald Guthrie to conclude, “Although these similarities may not be considered conclusive, yet they could be regarded as confirmatory if at least the substance of the Acts speeches is traced to a Petrine source, and there seems no strong reason for denying this. These similarities are what we should expect in common material attributed to the apostle Peter. In the epistle there is a development of the ideas in the Acts speeches, but this development is of such a character that it is explicable as a maturing of thought in one mind.”[12]

            One last bit of evidence that this letter is written by Peter the disciple is that the cryptic description of Rome as Babylon in 1 Peter 5:13 matches what we know about Peter’s later life in that city.

External Evidence. According to John MacArthur, “It is noteworthy that the early Christians universally recognized this letter as the work of Peter.”[13] Donald Guthrie writes, “So strong is the evidence for the use of this epistle in the early church that some scholars have regarded it as proved and maintained that it was considered to be canonical as early as this word had a meaning.”[14]

Early Church Uses of 1 Peter. Irenaeus (AD 140—203) is likely the first person to mention Peter as the author of 1 Peter. In the latter part of the second century, 1 Peter was used by Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, and Tertullian. Most scholars believe that Polycarp was familiar with the epistle in the second century.

            Polycarp (AD 69—155), cites 1 Peter several times but does not name Peter as the author. While this might be surprising to us and a cause for concern,[15] it was a common practice of Polycarp to cite works without naming the author or source. Polycarp probably was citing 1 Peter from memory. Polycarp used 1 Peter in his Letter to the Philippians, which was likely dated around AD 120—140.[16]

            By the time of Irenaeus (AD 140—203), 1 Peter was quoted as a letter of Peter. Irenaeus explicitly cites 1 Peter in the AD 180s.[17] Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria both pick up that same tradition. Theophilus of Antioch also attributes 1 Peter to the apostle Peter.

            Papias discusses 1 Peter in a work likely dated to AD 110. This is recorded by Eusebius in his work, Ecclesiastical History 3.29.16. According to Eusebius, 1 Peter was among the “undisputed” New Testament books (see Ecclesiastical History 3.3.1; 3.4.2). Eusebius called these homologoumena (books universally accepted by the church).

            With that said, the Muratorian Fragment does not reference 1 Peter or 2 Peter. This is surprising, but possible because parts of the Muratorian Fragment are corrupted.

            When we read 2 Peter 3:1 it says that it was Peter’s second letter sent to that audience, so it makes sense the 1 Peter would be Peter’s first letter sent to them as well.

Peter’s Coworkers. First Peter 5:13 reveals Peter’s coworker, “my son, Mark.” Tradition tells us that Mark’s gospel is based on the eye-witness testimonies of Peter. This was the same Mark that failed Paul (Acts 13:13; 15:38-29; Col 4:10), but later became useful for ministry (2 Tim 4:11). Mark being in Rome with Peter makes sense because Colossians 4:10-11 references how Paul left Mark in Rome on an earlier occasion.

Objections to Peter’s Authorship. I agree with Guthrie who comments, “The very great weight of patristic evidence in favour of Petrine authorship and the absence of any dissentient voice raises so strong a presupposition in favour of the correctness of the claims of the epistle to be Peter’s own work that it is surprising that this has been questioned.”[18] Yet, some scholars still reject Peter as the author of this letter for the following reasons.[19]

The Greek used in 1 Peter appears too complex to be written by a fisherman. The writer of 1 Peter has an extended vocabulary of the Greek language. He also shows a strong command of Greek syntax. As a Galilean fisherman who spoke Aramaic, we would not expect to read a letter that has the polished Greek of 1 Peter. However, 1 Peter was written about thirty years after Peter accepted Jesus’s commission to be an apostle and abandon fishing. Thirty years is plenty of time to learn and master a language. Additionally, while Aramaic was likely Peter’s native tongue, he lived in a bilingual area and probably used Greek on occasion. It should also be noted that Peter had Silvanus as his amanuensis (also known as a “scribe” or “secretary”) and perhaps Silvanus was responsible for some of the fancy vocabulary and polished syntax.[20]

The historical situation of suffering and persecution (as revealed in 1 Pet 1:6; 2:12, 15; 4:12–16; 5:8–9) does not match when Peter would have written. If this letter was written in the mid AD 60s of the first century, as conservative scholars believe, liberal scholars say the historical background of suffering and persecution of Christians does not match what we know about the history of Christians in these regions.

            Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia were in what we know as first-century Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey). We are not aware of official, organized, and recorded persecution of Christians in these areas until the second century. However, I would contend that persecution of Christians could have occurred even if we have no record of it. In other words, just because we don’t have a record of the persecution does not prove it did not happen. I would also like to point out that the famous correspondence between Pliny the Younger and Emperor Trajan about persecution of Christians in Asia Minor was a discussion of how to handle the persecution of Christians that was already occurring. The correspondence does not contain an “announcement” that persecution was to begin nor was it an “edict” from the emperor to persecute Christians. In fact, Trajan’s reply to Pliny’s inquiry suggests the persecution was not something new, but that the persecution of Christians had already occurred for a period of time

            Guthrie correctly points out, “Christians were certainly made scapegoats in Rome, and the savage nature of Nero’s treatment of them must have been widely known throughout the provinces, where great apprehension must have arisen among the Christians. Peter may well have imagined an extension of the attack and wished to warn the Asian Christians of what was in store for them. There is nothing in the references to persecution in this epistle which rules out this hypothesis.”[21]

            This correspondence between Pliny the Younger[22] and Emperor Trajan occurred in AD 110. Trajan had sent Pliny to Bithynia (one of the locations Peter addresses in 1 Peter 1:1) to clean up an administrative mess in the area. When Pliny arrives in Bithynia, he discovers that persecution of Christians is occurring, so he writes a letter to Trajan asking what Pliny should do about the persecution that is already occurring.

The doctrine taught in 1 Peter appears too similar to Paul’s doctrine, so 1 Peter can’t be written by Peter. Some scholars believe that there are many similarities in what is written in 1 Peter with what Paul writes in his letters. They believe the connections with Ephesians and Romans are significant.

            Yet, as far as I can tell, nowhere does 1 Peter contain quotes from Paul’s letters, just common language, similar thoughts, etc. Furthermore, Romans and Ephesians are both considered longer works of Paul (Romans at sixteen chapters and Ephesians at six chapters), so it makes sense that a longer letter addressed to a general audience might match what Peter writes to a group of Christians spread out in a geographical region. Additionally, Paul is famous for addressing the law of Moses in contrast to faith in Jesus Christ, yet there is no mention of the Law in 1 Peter. We also could notice that 1 Peter omits any discussion of justification, the new Adam, the role of the flesh, or extended Old Testament quotations, all of which are common in Paul’s letters.

PETER’S AMENUENSIS. We learn about Peter’s amanuensis in 1 Peter 5:12, “Through Silvanus, our faithful brother (for so I regard him), I have written to you briefly, exhorting and testifying that this is the true grace of God. Stand firm in it!”[23] The word “Amanuensis” is the official term, but “scribe” or “secretary” is also a common term used and adequately describes what a amanuensis would have done in the first century.

His Name. “Silvanus” (in NASB, but in NIV and NLT translated as “Silas”) is the Roman latinized version of Silas which was his Greek name.[24] Silvanus became a Christian at the church in Jerusalem and was prophetically gifted and sent to Antioch to do ministry there (Acts 15:22, 27, 32). He traveled with Paul on Paul’s second missionary journey (in Acts 15:40-18:5 he’s mentioned eleven times), and he’s mentioned in several of Paul’s letters (2 Cor 1:19; 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1)

His Role. Silvanus, following first-century customs, likely had two potential roles as Peter’s amanuensis.

He Assisted Peter in Writing the Letter. If he was an amanuensis he could have been writing down the words of this letter as Peter dictated it to him. Perhaps word-for-word or maybe he had a role in shaping which words and phrases were used. Using an amanuensis was a common practice[25] in the first century because of the value of papyrus and low level of literacy that many people had.

He Assisted Peter in Delivering the Letter. This is an option too. Perhaps he only delivered the letter. Perhaps he wrote it down for Peter and delivered it to the churches in Asia Minor.

DATE. Because of the prominence of suffering in this letter, three dates are often proposed to connect the suffering of 1 Peter with suffering of the historical background. There are three common dates proposed for 1 Peter: During Trajan’s reign in AD 111, during Domitian’s reign in AD 90—100, or during Nero’s reign in AD 62—65. In my opinion, the third option is correct. This is the only option available if we believe Peter, the disciple of Jesus Christ and an apostle of the early church, wrote this letter! More specifically, I hold to the AD 63 date.

            Why I support the AD 63 date. We know from history that a massive fire broke out in Rome in AD 64, that Nero blamed Christians for that fire, and Paul and Peter were both killed in the persecution of Christians that soon resulted from that fire. A bloodbath was created by Nero’s persecution of Christians in AD 64. Nero, as many historians have documented, was a stable and good emperor until the latter years of his life when he became a literal madman. With that said, it seems unlikely that Peter would tell his audience to submit to a government after AD 64 when Nero was chaotically persecuting Christians. This letter does not mention martyrdom, so it likely was written before the Nero persecution and murder of Christians that began in the fall of AD 64. I believe the letter was written in AD 63, yet Guthrie correctly admits, “It is impossible to fix the date with any exactness, but the period immediately preceding or during the Neronian persecutions would appear to be the most probable.”[26]

            With that said, I believe Peter writes this letter in AD 63 from Rome. Peter sees the hints of a future wave of persecution coming, and he writes this letter to help the readers endure the suffering they’re experiencing as well as prepare them for more severe suffering that he believes is coming. I agree with Greg Forbes who writes, “In AD 64 Nero blamed Christians for the outbreak of a fire in Rome. This resulted in a brutal attack on the Christians, but this action appears to have been confined to Rome itself. Nevertheless, if Peter was writing from Rome during Nero’s persecution, he may well have been preparing his readers for trouble which he felt might soon spread to Asia minor.”[27]

            As soon as someone describes persecution of Christians in AD 63 there usually is a refutation that no state persecution is recorded in extra biblical sources in Asia Minor (the destination of Peter’s letter) until AD 112. This was in Pliny’s letter to Emperor Trajan and Trajan’s reply, in which both letters make it clear that Christians who refused to acknowledge the Emperor as lord were martyred.

            However, it’s important to note that persecution of Christians can occur without there being official documentation of it or an official policy formulated to ensure it happened. Forbes notes that the phrase Peter uses in 1 Peter 4:14–16 does not imply state persecution. Furthermore, he points out that a similar idea of unofficial localized persecution of Christians occurs in Acts 4:41 (cf. Mark 13:13).[28] Again, I agree with Forbes, “a more likely source for the suffering experienced by these readers was general abuse, ill treatment, and discrimination from the surrounding society as a whole . . . As it was deemed improper for one to depart from the religion of one’s fathers (for this disrupted the fabric of society), retaliation from the non Christian populace would hardly have been unexpected.”[29]

THE LOCATION FROM WHICH PETER WRITES HIS LETTER. Peter concludes his letter saying, “She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you greetings, and so does my son, Mark” (1 Pet 5:13). There are five main views of what location Peter is in when he writes from “Babylon.” Let’s explore each separately.

Peter’s Wife. Some believe the “She who is in Babylon” is a reference to peter’s wife. This is based on a connection to 1 Corinthians 9:5. However, this is a strange description of a wife. This view is highly unlikely.

A City in Egypt. There is a city in Egypt known as “Babylon.” However, there is no record from Scripture or church history that Peter ever traveled to or did ministry in the city of Babylon in Egypt. There was a small Roman military colony there. However, nowhere does the Alexandrian church claim that Peter ministered there. Guthrie asserts, “This Babylon [in Egypt] was so small a district that it seems highly improbable that Peter made his headquarters there without such a fact leaving any trace in early tradition.”[30]

A Region of Antioch. Because followers of Christ were first called Christians in Antioch, some say Peter wrote from there. Another line of support might be the “descent into hell” was connected with this area. Yet, this seems unlikely.

A Location on the Euphrates River. In the mind of an Israelite the word “Babylon” would bring up memories of the nation of Babylon with its city located on the Euphrates River. Similar to the Babylon in Egypt, we do not have any evidence from the Bible or extra biblical sources that Peter ever ministered from Babylon on the Euphrates. This region was scarcely populated in the mid-first-century. Additionally, all church tradition about Peter reveals his ministries were in the west, not the east. Furthermore, nothing is known of Mark working in the east. It’s also unlikely that Peter, Silvanus, and Mark would all be at this unlikely location.

            This location, according to Josephus (Antiquities of the Jews, 18.371-79) had no Jewish population in Peter’s life during the AD 60s. Church history does not reveal a Christian Church there in the first century.

A Figurative Reference to the City of Rome. With those four unlikely options, I believe that when Peter discusses “She who is in Babylon” hedescribes the church in Rome, in an encrypted figurative way. I think it’s a metaphor to describe Rome. Just as Babylon had been an enemy and persecutor of the nation of Israel; so now Rome is functioning in that same way that Babylon used to function.

            It should not surprise us to see Peter use a metaphor to describe Rome because Peter’s letter is peppered with metaphors. In 1 Peter 1:2 he said we’re sprinkled with the blood of Jesus, in 1 Peter 2:2 he told the believers to desire milk of God’s Word, in 1 Peter 2:4–5 he said the Christians were being built up as living stones, in 1 Peter 5:1–4 he told the elders to shepherd the flock among themselves, and in 1 Peter 5:8–9 he describes Satan as a roaring lion.

            But why mention Rome in this secretive way? Donald Guthrie notes, “It is probable that the cryptogram was used as a security measure. If at the time of writing, Rome was the centre of vicious action against Christianity, the avoidance of any mention of the Roman church would be a wise move if the letter fell into official hands. The writer evidently assumed that the readers would have understood the symbolism.”[31] Ray Stedman says Peer likely used “Babylon” to refer to Rome “because the idolatry, bloodlust, and immorality of ancient Babylon had infected the capital of the Roman Empire.”[32] Doug Moo and D. A. Carson write, “Contemporary scholars are virtually unanimous in viewing ‘Babylon’ as a symbol for worldly power drawn from Babylon’s role vis-à-vis Israel in the Old Testament.”[33]

AUDIENCE: The audience appears, in my opinion, to be more Gentile than Jewish (see 1 Pet 1:14; 2:9–10; 4:3–4). In 1 Peter 1:1b we read about, “those who reside as aliens, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia.” Let’s examine both the people and places mentioned in this verse.

The People. They’re described as “aliens” which means sojourners, exiles, foreign residents. They are aliens because their citizenship is heavenly. They are temporary residents on earth because their eternal citizenship is in heaven. Later in Peter’s letter he describes his readers as, “as aliens and strangers” (1 Pet 2:11b). That phrase describes people with no rights or privileges. 1 Peter 2:11b has the same meaning as 1 Peter 1:1 meaning sojourners, exiles, foreign residents. They are aliens because their citizenship is heavenly. They are temporary residents on earth because their eternal citizenship is in heaven.

Locations. When we read, “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia,” we might find it hard to locate these places on a map. We need to ask: Are these “political” districts (a very large area) or are these “geographical” districts? I believe[34] these are geographical districts. If this letter is addressed to geographical districts, then this letter is directed to those who live north of the Taurus mountains. Support that Peter was writing to the geographical districts, not political districts, is that he mentions Pontus and Bithynia separately as geographical districts, but those two areas formed one administrative province.[35]

            Why would Peter mention these locations in this order? Most likely, the order of the districts represents the traveler’s itinerary. The person delivering this letter would land at the port of Pontus, then visit the churches in Galatia, then travel next to Cappadocia, then travel next to Asia, and return to Bithynia.

People.

Social. These districts were known to have many wealthy residents. With that said, there also was a wide disparity between the wealthy land owners and merchants compared to the working classes. The churches to which Peter writes his letter were primarily composed of the poor working class. In Peter’s letter he addresses the behavior of slaves (1 Pet 2:18–25), but he does not address their masters.[36] Thus, I think we should conclude that the churches probably were mixed, but with a majority being working class. Guthrie is correct to conclude, “Our conclusion must be that these churches, like most in the primitive, were mixed in respect of the social status of their members.”[37]

Racial. While some have stated that the readers were Jewish (Origen), few today hold this view. The readers likely are not Jewish because they are described as having lived a previous empty way of life (1 Pet 1:18), they had evil desires when living in ignorance (1 Pet 1:14), that they did what pagans normally did (1 Pet 4:3–4), and they once were not a people but have been called out of darkness (1 Pet 2:9–10).[38] Additionally, this letter is addressed to residents in five geographical districts that were primarily Gentile. Guthrie comments based on this evidence, “It is difficult to see how these words could apply to any but Gentiles.”[39]

            While the view that this letter was written to Jews living in these areas is often dismissed today, the view does have several good reasons to commend it.

• The readers, who are described as “aliens” and “strangers” (1 Pet 1:1; 2:11) could have been people part of the Jewish diaspora (see 1 Pet 2:10; James 1:1).
• The letter addresses the audience in subtle ways suggesting they are Jewish. For example, Peter refers to the readers as Sarah’s children (1 Pet 3:6), God’s elect (1 Pet 1:1, 2, 4, 9; cf. Pss 104:6, 23; Isa 65:9, 29), those who were called to live lives of holiness (1 Pet 1:15–16; cf. Lev 11:44–45; 19:2), and as a result are God’s kingdom of priests (1 Pet 2:9; cf. Exod 19:6).
• The audience is contrasted with the gentiles. First Peter 2:12, “Keep your behavior excellent among the Gentiles, so that in the thing in which they slander you as evildoers, they may because of your good deeds, as they observe them, glorify God in the day of visitation.” 1 Peter 4:3, “For the time already past is sufficient for you to have carried out the desire of the Gentiles, having pursued a course of sensuality, lusts, drunkenness, carousing, drinking parties and abominable idolatries.”
• Paul was known as the apostle to the gentiles; Peter was the apostle to the circumcision, thus we would expect to have his letter addressed to Jews (Gal 2:9).
• Eusebius believed that first Peter was written to a Jewish audience (Ecclesiastical History 3.4.2).

While also appearing to talk to Jews, we must remember that New Testament writers saw Christianity as a new development of Judaism. Christianity was not new, but was a new phase of Judaism. So this language might be used for a gentile audience.

            It is possible (and likely) that the churches Peter was writing to in these five geographical districts were mixed with both Jews and Gentiles. However, my guess would be that a large majority of those readers were Gentile.

How the Gospel Reached These Regions. We need to ask how the gospel first reached these regions to which Peter writes. There are two common views.

Jewish pilgrims who were in Jerusalem for Pentecost took the gospel back to Asia Minor. Perhaps the most popular view is that Jewish individuals from Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia were in Jerusalem for the feast of Pentecost when the Holy Spirit arrived in Acts 2. As the Holy Spirit begins the age we know as the church, these people returned back to their hometowns and took the gospel with them. In other words, Jewish pilgrims who were visiting Jerusalem for Pentecost in Acts 2 joined this “Jesus movement.” These individuals then took their faith back to Asia Minor. Evidence for this view is that Aquila, the husband of Priscilla, was a native of Pontus (Acts 18:2), yet he was in Jerusalem for Pentecost according to Acts 2:9–11.

People in these five geographical districts were evangelized by converts of Paul. These people were possibly evangelized through an extension of Paul’s ministry in Ephesus, see Acts 19:10. Paul traveled near these areas, but not through them on his three missionary journeys as recorded in the book of Acts. It is likely that Paul’s converts took the gospel to these five geographical districts to which Peter addresses his letter.

THEMES IN 1 PETER. I believe there are four themes that are prominent in this letter.

Suffering. The topic of suffering is mentioned in 1 Peter 1:6; 2:19–23; 4:1, 12–19; 5:1, 10.

Selection. The topic of election and predestination is taught in this letter when Peter mentions that his readers were chosen (1 Pet 1:2; 5:13), caused to be born again (1 Pet 1:3; 2:9), they have been called by God (1:5; 2:21; 5:10)

Salvation. The topic of salvation of believers is again reinforced when Peter writes about being chosen (1:1–2), born again (1:3–5, 23), called (1:15), redeemed (1:19), how Christ died for sins (3:18), about their baptism (3:21), and how they’ve received grace as God’s children (1:13–14).

Sanctification. The topic of sanctification is indirectly taught in this letter as Peter tells his readers to prepare their minds (1:13–16), conduct themselves in fear (1:17–21), love one another (1:22–25), desire good food (2:1–2), abstain from worldly behavior (2:11–12),  submit to human institutions (2:13–17), submit to your masters (2:18–25), serve your wives (3:1–6), submit to your husbands (3:7), everyone be good (3:8–12), move past the desires of the flesh (4:3–6), and be in good relationship with others (4:7–11).

SUFFERING IN 1 PETER. A constant debate occurs about suffering described in 1 Peter. According to Moo and Carson, the problem of suffering “lies beneath virtually every verses of this letter.”[40] One commentary reveals, “First Peter was written to Christians who were experiencing various forms of persecution, men and women whose stand for Jesus Christ made them aliens and strangers in the midst of a pagan society.”[41]

            With that said, we must ask some questions about this suffering. Was it real or perceived? Was it current or future? Was it occurring at the time of Peter’s writing or something he thought would be in the future? Was it official for unofficial? Was it local or universal? Was it continual or sporadic? Was it actual or potential?

            Virtually all scholars agree that the “emperors chosen scapegoat was the Christians, who were already hated because they were associated with Jews, and because they were seen as being hostile to the Roman culture.”[42] Furthermore, “The persecution and suffering that Peter did refer to was primarily social and religious rather than legal. A hostile pagan society would slander, ridicule, discriminate against, and even inflict physical abuse on those whose lifestyles had radically changed because of their faith in Christ.”[43]

            It is my opinion that the suffering of Peter’s audience was local unofficial suffering. I believe Michael Bird and NT Wright are correct when they write, “They do not appear to be facing organized persecution, sponsored officially by this or that city-state. Their adversaries are more likely local groups who have come to regard Christians as dangerous social deviants and are pressuring them, verbally and perhaps physically, to return to their normal web of socio-religious relationships and cultural and religious practices that characterized the city and/or province.”[44]

            We must remember that in the Greco-Roman culture, to abstain from worshipping the local gods was a risk. This could bring trouble to the region, city, community, or family. When trouble came, pagans often blamed Christians because of their lack of appeasement to the various deities and goddesses of their culture.

            I believe Moo and Carson accurately summarize the suffering Christians were experiencing as, “The hostility Christians were known to have faced from the general Roman population. By refusing to engage in the quasi religious customs surrounding the official Roman governmental structures, by resolutely setting themselves against some of the immoral practices prevalent at the time, and by meeting so often on their own to celebrate the Lord’s supper, Christians were regarded with suspicion and hostility. The readers of first Peter were probably being criticized, mocked, discriminated against, and perhaps even brought into court on trumped up charges.”[45]

            Jesus had told the disciples that they would experience persecution and troubles (John 15:18—16:4, 33; 21:18–19). Peter tells us disciples how to endure those persecutions and troubles.

            In the context of suffering we learn that salvation is only possible through the sufferings of Christ. The verb, pasch[o] is used twelve times in 1 Peter and only eleven times in the other New Testament letters. “Peter sensed a gathering storm that would bring intensified persecution to the Christian community. The church had known opposition ever since Pentecost, but it was increasing in severity as Peter wrote.”[46] The late J Vernon McGee rightly asserts, “Simon Peter is not going to give us his theory of suffering. Simon Peter is going to speak to us out of his own tremendous experience, and it will become very wonderful to us as it becomes your experience and my experience.”[47]

            For those in the midst of suffering, Peter knew what to say. He watched Jesus suffer and overcome. Those who are similarly facing suffering because of their steadfast faith can confidently put their trust in him. Then they, too, will share in Christ’s victory.”[48]

SALVATION IN 1 PETER. It’s important to note Peter’s use of “salvation” (1 Pet 1:5, 7, 9, 13; 2:2) in this letter because he means something different than we might think. When Peter mentions “salvation” he’s describing ultimate salvation in the future. Peter uses words different than other New Testament writers. Paul’s salvation was initiation. He looks at “saved” as how you get in. James’ salvation was practical or progressive. He looks at “saved” as what you do once you’re in. Peter’s salvation was glorification. He looks at “saved” as a future experience to look forward to eternally.

HYMNS IN 1 PETER. Some scholars see three early Christian hymns that made their way into this letter: 1 Peter 1:20; 2:21-24; and 3:18–20.[49] Other scholars see 1 Peer 1:3–5 as one hymn, 1 Peter 1:20 as a second hymn, and 1 Peter 3:18, 20 as another hymn. Yet another view would be to see 1 Peter 1:3–5 as one hymn, 1 Peter 1:20; 3:18, 22; 4:6 as a second hymn, then 1 Peter 2:22–25 as a third hymn, and 1 Peter 5:5–9 as a fourth hymn.[50]

APPLICATIONS.

1. Prepare to grow.

2. Prepare to suffer.

3. Prepare to endure.

4. Prepare to exude Christ’s suffering.

Another way to think of the applications of this letter is to:

-Endure trials

-Enjoy salvation

-Engage in spiritual growth

Outlines of 1 Peter

Here’s one outline that I created which I think summarizes 1 Peter well and focuses on the content of the book.

I. LIFE IN THE SON (1:3—2:10)

II. LIFE IN SOCIETY (2:11—3:12)

III. LIFE IN SUFFERING (3:13—4:19)

IV. LIFE IN SERVICE (5:1–11)

Another outline I like is from the MacArthur Study Bible:

I. REMEMBER OUR GREAT SALVATION (1:3—2:10)

II. REMEMBER OUR EXAMPLE BEFORE MEN (2:11—4:6)

III. REMEMBER OUR LORD WILL RETURN (4:7—5:11)

I also like the outline in the Bible Knowledge Commentary[51] which follows:

I. CUSTOMARY SALUTATION (1:1–2)

II. CHOSEN FOR NEW BIRTH (1:3—2:10)

III. CHALLENGED TO NEW BEHAVIOR (2:11—3:7)

IV. CAUTIONED FOR NEW PERSECUTION (3:8—4:19)

V. CHARGED WITH NEW RESPONSIBILITY (5:1–11)

VI. CONCLUSION (5:12–14)

Donald Guthrie’s outline[52] is simple yet exegetically sound:

I. THE GREETING (1:1–2)

II. THE NATURE OF CHRISTIAN SALVATION (1:3—2:10)

III. THE CHRISTIAN RELATIONSHIPS (2:11—3:12)

IV. THE CHRISTIAN SUFFERING (3:13—4:19)

V. CONCLUSION (5:12–14)

Mark Hitchcok outlines this book this way:

I. INTRODUCTION (1:1–2)

II. SALVATION—THE BELIEVER’S DESTINY (1:3—2:10)

III. SUBMISSION—THE BELIEVER’S DUTY (2:11—3:12)

IV. SUFFERRING—THE BELIEVER’S DISCIPLINE (3:13—5:11)

V. CONCLUSION (5:12–14)

Here’s another outline I created that focuses on the chapter divisions of the book.

I. SAINTS IN GOD’S KINGDOM (ch. 1). We could summarize this chapter into two sections: 1 Peter 1:3–12 is about walking in hope through suffering while 1 Peter 1:13-25 is about walking in holiness and harmony with others as we endure suffering.

A. Greeting (vv. 1–2). In these two verses we have an identification of the author (v. 1a) and an identification of those he addresses in the letter (vv. 1b–2).

B. The Salvation and Suffering You Know About (vv. 3–9). Here in verses three to five we learn about regeneration (our source of hope) and in verses six to nine we learn about rejoicing (our attitude of hope). In 1 Peter 1:3–9 we learn about the blessings of the gospel, in 1 Peter 1:10–12 we learn that these blessings were foreseen, in 1 Peter 1:13–16 we learn that heirs of those blessings must change their manner of life, and in 1 Pet 1:17–21 we learn the basis of a believer’s confidence must not be forgotten.[53]

C. The Result of that Salvation (vv. 10–21). While verses three to five taught us about regeneration (our source of hope) and verses six to nine taught us about rejoicing (our attitude of hope), now in verses ten through twelve we learn about revelation (our search for hope). I like Ray Stedman who summarizes 1 Peter 1:13—2:12 as “Sanctification” by being holy (1 Pet 1:13–21), loving one another (1 Pet 1:22–25), desiring the pure milk of the Word (1 Pet 2:1–10), and abstaining from sinful lusts (1 Pet 2:11–12).[54]

D. The Word Preached Among You (vv. 22–25)

II. SUBMITTING IN GOD’S PLANS (ch. 2)

A. The Picture of Believers (vv. 1–3). A broader outline for 1 Peter 1:22—2:3 would be that heirs have responsibilities and that heirs form a spiritual community (1 Pet 2:4–10).[55]

B. The Holy House of God (vv. 4–10). I think we can summarize these first two sections of 1 Peter 2 as describing the children in God’s family (vv. 1-3), the stones in God’s building (vv. 4-8), and the priests in God’s nation (vv. 9-10).

C. Keep Your Behavior Excellent (vv. 11–12). These two verses begin a long section that elaborates the importance of submission in front of the lost (vv. 11-12), submission in the context of government (vv. 13-17), and submission in the context of work (vv. 18-25).

D. Submit to Human Government (vv. 13–17). First Peter 2:13 begins a series of “duties” that Christians experience. Peter describes the Christian’s duty to governing authorities (2:13–17), duty of slaves (2:18–25), and the duty of wives and husbands (3:1–7).

E. Submit to Human Masters (vv. 18–25)

III. SERVANTS IN GOD’S HOME (ch. 3)

A. Wives and Husbands (vv. 1–7). This section can be divided up into two categories: instruction for submissive wives (vv. 1-6) and instruction for husbands (v. 7). In the instruction for submissive wives (vv. 1-6) Peter addresses their behavior (vv. 1-2), beauty (vv. 3-4), and biography (vv. 5-6). In the instruction for husbands (v. 7) Peter addresses how husbands should be living with consideration and compassion (v. 7a) as well as living with honor as a fellow heir (v. 7b).

B. Life in Harmony (vv. 8–12). Peter addresses how to live a life in harmony by addressing his readers’ mental attitude (vv. 8-9), method of action (vv. 10-11), and motivation for behavior (v. 12).

C. Life in Suffering (vv. 13–17). In this section Peter provides principles in suffering (vv. 13-14), practices in suffering (vv. 15-16), and potential in suffering (v. 17).

D. Life in Christ (vv. 18–22).[56] These five verses contain important teachings about Christ’s suffering (v. 18), Christ’s sharing (vv. 19-20), Christ’s sustaining (v. 21), and Christ’s summit (v. 22).

IV. SUFFERING IN GOD’S WORLD (ch. 4)

A. Christ Suffered to Bring Death to our Sins (vv. 1–6). In this section Peter describes our attitude we should have (vv. 1-2), the antagonism we face (vv. 3-5), and the anticipation we should have (v. 6).

B. Christ Suffered So You can Use Your Gifts to Serve others (vv. 7–11). As it relates to our spiritual gifts Peter tells us about our motivation in the first half of verse seven (our incentive is that the end is near), he tells us about our ministry in verses seven through eleven (our instruction and application is to serve in God’s strength), and he tells us about our mark at the end of verse eleven (our outcome is that we want God to be praised).

C. Christ Suffered, You Suffer, So Rejoice (vv. 12–19). While in the difficult position of suffering, Peter explains to us the situation (vv. 12-14), the cause (vv. 15-16), and the response (vv. 17-19).

V. SHEPHERDING IN GOD’S CHURCH (ch. 5)

A. The Job Description for Spiritual Shepherds (vv. 1–5). First Peter 5:1–4 contains good instructions for elders of churches. Peter teaches about our intention (v. 1) to be active in ministry, our instruction (vv. 2-3) to minister the right way, and our incentive (v. 4) to minister with expectation of future reward.

B. The Job Description for Spiritual People (vv. 6–11). First Peter 5:5–7 contains two appeals: an appeal to young men (v. 5a) and an appeal to all people (vv. 5b-7).Another way to divide the end of 1 Peter 5 is to look at Satan (vv. 8-9), struggles (vv. 10-11), and summation (vv. 12-14).

C. Goodbye (vv. 12–14).

MY FAVORITE QUOTES ABOUT 1 PETER

“First Peter has been one of the most warmly received and widely used books in the New Testament. It breeds the spirit of confidence and hope in the midst of suffering. It is a loving call to action and a source of strength for those enduring suffering. Saints through the ages have drawn strength from peter’s instruction.”[57]

SERMONS FROM 1 PETER – “SUSTENANCE FOR SAINTS”

1. First Things First (1 Pet 1:1–12)
2. Holy Is as Holy Does (1 Pet 1:13–25)
3. Standing Out by Fitting In (1 Pet 2:1–10)
4. For God and Country (1 Pet 2:11–25)
5. Ground Rules for Marriage (1 Peter 3:1–7)
6. Harmony in a Disarray World (1 Pet 3:8–12)
7. Sharing the Savior in Suffering (1 Pet 3:13–17)
8. Trial by Water (1 Pet 3:18–22)
9. Suffering without Sin (1 Pet 4:1–6)
10. Essential Actions in Suffering (1 Pet 4:7–11)
11. Rejoicing in Righteous Suffering (1 Pet 4:12–19)
12. Posture in the Pasture (1 Pet 5:1–4)
13. Caring Counsel (1 Pet 5:5–7)
14. Still Standing (1 Pet 5:8–14)

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Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

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[1] For a good discussion of the imperative in both one Peter and general New Testament study, see Greg W. Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Guide for the Greek New Testament (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2014), 4–7.

[2] This is the third most quotations in the New Testament (only Hebrews and Revelation have more quotations). Peter quotes Isaiah 40:6–8 is 1 Peter 1:24–25a, Isaiah 28:16 in 1 Peter 2:6, Psalm 118:22 in 1 Peter 2:7, Isaiah 8:14 in 1 Peter 2:8, Isaiah 53:9 in 1 Peter 2:22; Psalm 34:12–16 in 1 Peter 3:10–12, , Proverbs 11:31 in 1 Peter 4:18, and Proverbs 3:34 in 1 Peter 5:5.

[3] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[4] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 781–782.

[5] N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2019), 762.

[6] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 838.

[7] “The letter’s content and the witness of church history support beyond any reasonable doubt the simple affirmation made in verse 1. The letter indeed comes from ‘Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ.’” Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 838.

[8] Church tradition also tells us that it’s based on Peter’s teaching that Mark writes his gospel shortly after Peter’s death (Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 3.39.15).

[9] Ken Hanna, From Gospels to Glory (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 417.

[10]  Notes adapted from Forbes, 1 Peter, 1.

[11] We could also connect this verse with Acts 3:12–26 and Acts 10:34–43.

[12] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 798.

[13] MacArthur Study Bible, 1905.

[14] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 760.

[15] Because of this use by Polycarp, some scholars believed Polycarp did not know who the author of first Peter was.

[16] Polycarp, Philippians 1.3 uses 1 Peter 1:8; Philippians 2.1-2 uses 1 Peter 1:13–14; Philippians 5.3 uses 1 Peter 2.11, 3.14; Philippians 8.1 uses 1 Peter 2:21–24; Philippians 10.2 uses 1 Peter 2:12–13. Furthermore, Eusebius notes how Polycarp used 1 Peter in Ecclesiastical History 4.14.9.

[17] See Against Heresies 4.9.2; 4.16.5; 5.7.2.

[18] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 762.

[19] These reasons are adapted from Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 763–76.

[20] “We are left in no doubt that Peter employed Silas as his scribe or secretary, for he tells us so in 5:12. But did this amount to co-authorship, and if it did not, what degree of latitude did Peter allow Silas in expressing his thoughts? It was well known that ancient secretaries were at times allowed considerable freedom in writing down their master’s ideas. Indeed, in certain cases the secretary would be given only the barest outline of the contents and would then produce the letter in conformity with the outline. The master would, of course, check over the finished product and it would be assumed that the contents were authenticated by him. Although the language would be that of the amanuensis the fundamental ideas would be those of the master.” Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 768

[21] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 772.

[22] Pliny the Younger was the governor over one of the provinces that Peter addressed in his letter.

[23] First Peter 5:12 is often seen as the “purpose” of the book of 1 Peter.

[24] BDAG states that Silvanus of 1 Peter is surely the same man named Silas in Acts (p. 923 of BDAG).

[25] In Romans 16:22 Tertius is identified as the one who “wrote down” the letter for Paul.

[26] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 788.

[27] Greg Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Greek Guide to the New Testament (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2014),2.

[28] Greg Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Greek Guide to the New Testament (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2014),3.

[29] Greg Forbes, 1 Peter, Exegetical Greek Guide to the New Testament (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2014),3.

[30] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 793.

[31] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 794.

[32] Ray C. Stedman, Adventuring Through the Bible: A Comprehensive Guide to the Entire Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House, 2012), 812.

[33] D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 646.

[34] Following Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 783.

[35] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 783.

[36] However, Peter does address the duties of citizenship (1 Pet 2:11–17), which would apply to free men.

[37] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 784.

[38] Adapted from Guthrie.

[39] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 785.

[40] D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 638.

[41] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 837.

[42] MacArthur Study Bible, 1906.

[43] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 838.

[44] N. T. Wright and Michael F. Bird, The New Testament in Its World: An Introduction to the History, Literature, and Theology of the First Christians (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2019), 762.

[45] D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 639.

[46] Ken Hanna, From Gospels to Glory (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 419–20.

[47] J. Vernon McGree, First Peter, Thru the Bible, vol. 54 (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1991), xiii.

[48] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, eds., Exploring Christian Scripture: Your Guide to the World of the Bible (Brentwood, TN: B&H Academic, 2024), 359.

[49] Bultmann, pp. 1–14.

[50] Boismar, Quarte Hymnes Baptismates dans la Primeire Epitre de Pierr, cited in Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 799.

[51] Roger M. Raymer, “1 Peter,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 2 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 839.

[52] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 800–04.

[53] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 800.

[54][54] Ray C. Stedman, Adventuring Through the Bible: A Comprehensive Guide to the Entire Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Discovery House, 2012), 813.

[55] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 4th rev. ed., The Master Reference Collection (Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press, 1996), 801.

[56] “First Peter 3:18–22 stands as one of the most difficult New Testament texts to translate and then interpret.” MacArthur Study Bible, 1907.

[57] Ken Hanna, From Gospels to Glory (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 416.

The apostle Paul was in his prime when he wrote his letter to the Romans. He was at the top of his game and Romans should be called his “magnum opus.” It’s the longest and most theologically significant letter that Paul wrote. With that said, Romans is perhaps the least controversial, yet most important book in the New Testament. Paul’s desire—yet inability to visit is that Rome—created one of the most magnificent pieces of literature of all time. If I was to describe the book of Romans with one word it would be “saving.”

In his commentary on Romans, Ben Witherington reveals, “Embarking on a study of Romans is rather like beginning a long journey – it requires a certain amount of preparation, patience, and faith, as the goal of understanding this formidable discourse is not reached for a considerable period of time.”[1] My hope and prayer is that this document can help you as you begin your long journey of study from Romans.

KEY VERSE IN ROMANS. “For I am not ashamed of the gospel, for it is the power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. For in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is written, “BUT THE RIGHTEOUS man SHALL LIVE BY FAITH” (Romans 1:16–17, NASB).[2]

THE PURPOSE OF ROMANS.[3] The first and most clear reason Paul wrote Romans was sin preparation for his travels to Spain (Rom 1:11–13; 15:22–25). We should not be surprised at Paul’s desire to go to Spain because it had not yet been evangelized[4] and evangelization was always Paul’s goal.

            Second, the letter was meant also to show that Paul wanted Rome to be a base of operation in his desire to reach west of Rome which did not have the gospel. An extensive letter like this would have shown what teaching he provides and it would invite them to participate financially in his mission.

            A third reason Paul possibly wrote Romans was to lay out a clear teaching of the gospel in case he never made it to Rome. In this way, his doctrine could go to Rome and extend beyond it if he never was able to travel to Rome or beyond Rome.

            A fourth and often overlooked reason for writing this letter was the constant need to guide and encourage new believers of the Christian faith. Paul’s first letter, Galatians, provides evidence for the doctrinal drift and confusion that could occur just a few years into the life of a new church. While the church in Rome was in a healthy position (Rom 15:14-16), the need to keep churches doctrinally sound among potential threats (as described in Romans 15:1-8 and Romans 16:17-20) was always needed.

            A fifth reason Paul writes Romans was to correct any misunderstandings of Paul’s message or motivations in ministry. Paul regularly received slander and verbal attacks to his message and motivations in ministry (Gal 1:1, 10–24; 2:1–2, 7; 1 Cor 3; 2 Cor 10—12). It seems likely that Paul wanted this letter to clarify both his message and motivations in ministry.

            A sixth reason the letter was written was to resolve potential divisions that had occurred or were occurring within the church.

            “People usually consider Paul’s letter to the Romans a deeply theological book, and it is. But it’s so much more than that. The book of Romans addresses a problem that faces every church: the problem of cultural, and even ethnic, division.”[5] One prominent New Testament scholar states, “This is an ambassadorial letter of sorts, intended not only to help mend fences in Rome but to promote the larger agenda of the gospel which is represented by the collection—namely Jew and Gentile united in Christ. As such it is largely an example of deliberative rhetoric, the rhetoric of advice and consent.”[6]

            Joseph Fitzmyer summarizes the purpose of Romans this way, “Paul writes Romans for ad hoc purposes: a letter to introduce himself to the Roman community, to seek support and aid from it for his projected trip to Spain, to ask for prayers and perhaps intercession of the Roman Christians with their colleagues in Jerusalem, so that, when he goes there with the collection, he will be rightly welcomed.”[7]

            Ben Witherington summarizes Romans this way, “Paul is not writing to correct problems or misunderstandings his own ministry with the audience has created (unlike the Corinthian letters), nor is this a progress-oriented letter to those wlong since converted by Paul (unlike Philippians). Paul must pick and chose his words here in Romans very carefully, knowing that first impressions are important. This document is more like an ambassadorial sort of document than a letter-essay to friends or understudies.”[8]

BIG IDEA. The apostle Paul teaches both Jews and gentiles about their inherited sin nature, God’s gracious gift of salvation obtained by faith in Jesus Christ, and that God’s grace that has been extended to all people.

AUTHORSHIP OF ROMANS. The book of Romans is part of what’s called the hauptbriefe, which is a list of letters in the New Testament that almost all scholars accepted as written by Paul. The book of Romans, 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Philippians, and Philemon are all seen as authentic letters written by Paul (even liberal scholars admit this).

            I agree with Craig Keener who writes, “Churches naturally preserved letters of Paul; It would have been unnatural for anyone to have forged letters in his name during his lifetime or until long after his genuine letters had become widely known and circulated as authoritative.”[9] A. T. Robertson sings the same song, “The genuineness of the Epistle is so generally admitted by scholars that it is unnecessary to prove it.”[10]

            Ben Witherington also agrees, “About the authorship of this document there is little or no debate. Paul wrote it.”[11]

Internal Evidence. Paul calls himself a bond servant of Christ (Rom 1:1), an apostle (Rom 1:1), he is an apostle to the gentiles (Rom 11:13; 15:15–20). He says that he wants to come see the people he is writing to (Rom 1:10b–12), but has been prevented from doing that (Rom 1:13–15). He was prevented from coming to them (Rom 15:22), but he hopes to visit them soon when he goes to Spain (Rom 15:23–24). He’s going to Jerusalem to deliver a gift (Rom 15:25–27), but when done he will go to Rome (Rom 15:28–29).

            Paul likely was born at the same time as Jesus in the city of Tarsus (Acts 9:11), an important city in the Roman province of Cilicia within Asia Minor. This “Paul” is an Israelite, descendant of Abraham, from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom 3:9; 4:1; 9:24), has a strong desire to win the lost (Rom 9:1–5; 10:1–4), and has preached the gospel where it has not been preached (Rom 15:20) from Jerusalem to Illyricum (Rom 15:18–19).

            We could identify Paul as the author of the book of Romans by his name directly (Rom 1:1), family background (Rom 11:1), travels (Rom 15:25–27), and relationships (Rom 16:1–24).

External Evidence. No one from church history ever raised a voice to challenge the authorship of Romans. There was no serious challenge to the claim that Paul wrote Romans.[12]

            Various ancient writers include Romans in their lists of authentic documents: Marcion, the Muratorian fragment, as well as a steady stream of patristic writers starting with Ignatius, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, and Irenaeus all say Paul wrote Romans.

            Similarly, here’s a list of apostolic Fathers that echo phrases from Romans: Clement in 1 Clement 32.1 (Rom 9:5); 35.5 (Rom 1:29–32); Ignatius in The Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 19.3 (Rom 6:4); The Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6.2 (Rom 6:17); The Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallians 9.2; The Epistle of Ignatius to the Symrnaeans 1.1 (Rom 1:3–4).

Amanuensis. According to Romans 16:22, Tertius was Paul’s amanuensis for the book of Romans. One Bible dictionary I often use defines an amanuensis as, “A secretary who assisted an employer by taking direct verbal dictation, copying, or writing on their behalf.”[13]

            Amanuenses often performed a broad range of work. An amanuensis might “dictate” what an authored wanted to write or might “write” on behalf of the author. “The use of amanuenses in some biblical texts raises questions about the extent to which amanuenses aided in writing and editing these texts, which ultimately touches on the nature of biblical inspiration. In such discussions, it is important to remember that final responsibility for the amanuensis’ work fell to the employer or sender.”[14]

            “Amanuenses may have been involved in other New Testament writings as well: • Tradition holds that Mark copied the Gospel of Mark from Peter’s recollections of Jesus’ life and ministry. • Luke, who is attributed with writing the book of Acts and the Gospel of Luke, may have functioned as Paul’s amanuensis. • Peter may have used Silvanus as an amanuensis in writing 1 Peter (1 Pet 5:12), although it could be argued that Silvanus acted as letter carrier rather than secretary (Richards, “Silvanus.”). Silvanus may be a primary point of contact between Peter and Paul (compare Acts 15:22; 2 Cor 1:19; 1 Thess 1:1; 2 Thess 1:1).”[15]

DATE AND OCCASION. Paul’s letter to the Romans was meant to provide an introduction to him as an apostle and garner support for him on his future journey to Spain. (If the believers in Rome knew Paul and his teachings, he hoped they would support him.)

            Paul likely wrote the book of Romans from Corinth in AD 57 during the three months he spent in that city as recorded in Acts 20:1–3 (with three months of leisure time we could expect a massive letter such as Romans to be composed). This was part of Paul’s third missionary journey. Romans 15:26 mentions he received contributions from Macedonia and Acaia for the poor in Jerusalem and Acts 20:3–6 mentions that he was preparing to return to Jerusalem with this love offering. Romans 15:28–29 reveals Paul’s plans to stop in Rome on his way to Spain after he delivers a contribution to the poor in Jerusalem (see Rom 15:25–28; Acts 20—21). Paul wanted to go to Rome (Rom 1:13; 15:22–23). Acts 20:3 and 2 Cor 13:1, 10 tell us he spent three months in Corinth in winter or spring of AD 57. Most scholars conclude that Paul wrote Romans in AD 57, from Corinth, during the last part of his third missionary journey.

            Additional support for this view that Paul wrote from the city of Corinth is based on Paul commending Phoebe (who carried this letter according to Rom 16:2) and resided in Cenchrea (a neighboring town of Corinth, see Rom 16:1–2). When “Gaius” sends his greetings in the letter (Rom 16:23) it may be the same Gaius who was Paul’s host and that Paul baptized in Corinth (1 Cor 1:14). The “Erastus” in Romans 16:23 might be the same man mentioned in 2 Timothy 4:20 that Paul has left in Corinth and might match an inscription mentioned in Corinth.[16] In Rom 16:21 Paul mentions “Timothy” and “Sosipater” who also accompanied Paul on his travels to Jerusalem (Acts 20:4).

            Ben Witherington summarizes the discussion of the date of Romans this way, “No time better suits the composition of this letter than the three-month winter stay in Corinth Paul had prior to his trip to Jerusalem in spring 57.”[17]

THEMES. The themes of Romans consist of contrasts. These contrasts are prominent and reiterated in almost every chapter either by using the word, a synonym, or a reference to the concept. The themes are contrasts between:         

• Jew and Gentile. This theme is emphasized in that the gospel—good news—can save both Jew and Gentile.           
• Sin and Grace. “No account can be given of God’s grace until full appreciation has been made of man’s sin, and this is well illustrated in this Epistle.”[18] 
• Law and Faith
• Death and Life

AUDIENCE. Paul’s letter is addressed to the Christians living in Rome (Rom 1:7). The audience of Paul’s letter to the Romans included both Jews (Rom 1:13; 4:1; 9:1—11:36) and gentiles (Rom 1:5, 12–14; 11:13).[19] Yet, I believe it was written to gentile Christians to rehearse and teach them about their roots of their Christian faith. Gentile Christians were probably the majority; Jewish Christians were probably the minority.[20]

            We cannot ignore the list of names Paul mentions in Romans 16:1–23. If Paul had never been there and the church did not know him, why and how could he include this list of names? Ben Witherington explains, “Paul has a specific rhetorical strategy for including these names in a letter to a congregation he does not have an apostolic relationship with – namely he wishes to establish credibility and rapport and make the audience more receptive to his coming and sharing with them. The names and the various greetings improve his honor rating with at least a part of the audience. The rhetorical effect at the end of the letter is to cement the fact that he already has some relationship with some Christians in Rome, so that his words need to be taken seriously and respected. He is drawing on his existing social networks to establish a basis for Rome being his own future launching bad for missions in the west.”[21]  

            Suetonius, in his Life of Claudias, says that the Roman emperor Claudias expelled Jews from Rome in AD 49 because of rioting due to debates about who Christ was (25.2, 4). The Roman government was normally tolerant of different religions, but emperor Claudius (AD 41 to 54) prohibited proselytizing. Most scholars believe Claudius expelled Jews from Rome (Acts 18:2) in AD 49 because of unrest in the Jewish community about Christianity.[22]

            This would have happened in AD 49. This was verified by Luke when he writes that Priscilla and Acquila, residents of Rome, were in Corinth because of that edict (Acts 18:2). Whatever the context, the letter is written to those in Christ (Rom 1:6) in Rome (Rom 1:7) who have a strong and mature faith (Rom 1:11–12; 15:14; 16:19).

            The letter was meant to encourage mature believers, likely Gentiles that have spent years living as Christians in Rome, who were also welcoming back Jews who had been expelled from the city but now are returning after the edict of Claudias had lifted. (Most scholars believe the edict would not have been in place for very long, especially since Claudias died in AD 54.)[23] The expulsion of Jews from Rome was not a permanent decree. [24]Thus, Jews would be returning to Rome to find a strong Gentile Christian church, to which Paul is teaching the Gentile Christians how to welcome back these Jewish Christians.[25]

            It’s important to remember that Paul’s audience was likely a group he didn’t know well. Because of this, Paul’s persuasion was different than how he approached other believers who had been under his guidance and teachings for a considerable time.[26]

            I agree with Ben Witherington who states, “Paul as the apostle to the Gentile Christians in Rome, although he is happy for Jewish Christians to overhear this conversation. It is Gentile Christians in Rome that he feels mainly need exhorting, and it is Gentile Christians in Rome he feels he has some claim on, since he is the apostle to the Gentiles.”[27]

THEOLOGICAL TREATISE. Various scholars regard Romans as a theological “treatise.” Let’s define that word, “a systematic exposition or argument in writing including a methodical discussion of the facts and principles involved and conclusions reached.”[28]

            I agree with Donald Guthrie who writes that Romans “provides a well-reasoned presentation of some of his most dominant concepts, and it may well be that it was Paul’s intention to inform the Roman church of these so that when he visited them the Christians would be intelligently acquainted with his teaching.”[29]

            I also believe Guthrie is correct to state, “a clear distinction must be made between the basic use that Christians have made of this Epistle and the purpose for which Paul originally intended it. It cannot be maintained that he envisaged laying the foundations of Pauline theology in this way. Moreover, there are some aspects of this theology which find no part in the argument of this Epistle, such as eschatology and the doctrine of the church. It is not possible, therefore, to regard this Epistle as a full statement of Paul’s doctrine.”[30]

            The Life Application Commentary further explains, “Because Paul was introducing himself to the Romans, he carefully outlined his beliefs. And because Paul was writing to help strengthen the faith of these young Christians, he was careful to build his case slowly, starting with the basics. The result was a concise, logical, and well-ordered presentation of Christian theology.”[31]

            While some people claim Romans is a systematic theology or theological treaty, the letter does not address several important theological topics. Ecclesiology is not explained in the letter. While the word, “ekklesia” occurs in Romans 16:1, 4, 5, 16, 23, it describes a local house church and does not provide instructions about the church. Romans 12:3–8 mentions “the body of Christ” but doesn’t describe the community as a church. Eschatology is only referenced within the context of God’s judgment (Rom 2:5–11) and the need for vigilance before the end time. There is no teaching on the “parousia” and the Eucharist is not even hinted at in this letter.

THE CITY OF ROME. When Paul wrote to the Christians living in Rome, it was the capital city of the vast and massive Roman Empire. Rome was, at that time, “the diplomatic and trade center of the world.”[32] Many people believe the population of Rome was 1,000,000 residents at the time Paul wrote his letter.[33] It’s also estimated that about 40 percent of those 1,000,000 residents were slaves or had been slaves. It was the largest and most influential city of the first-century. It was an economic hub and vast commercial empire that had enjoyed worldly prominence for more than a century. The phrase, “All Roads Lead to Rome” was true because of the network of highways built to connect it to many other cities.

            In the mid-fifties AD, Nero was the emperor of Rome. Historians tell us that the first five years of Nero’s rule went very well. Later, in the 60s, Nero becomes a persecuting monster against the Christians. Nero was tutored by the philosopher Seneca and was guided by Burrus. But after each of these men’s death Nero appears to have gone mad. In AD 59 Nero killed his mother and his wrath later would be famously directed against Christians. Yet all of this occurs after Paul writes Romans in AD 57.

            We know from acts that Paul had a habit of traveling to large economic metropolitan influential cities to conduct his missionary work. “Rome was the hub of the ever-expanding empire. Anyone like Paul with an urban ministry strategy and desire to reach the West could not possibly ignore this city of vital importance. It was the empire’s largest city.”[34] Traveling to and through Rome would match that same pattern of ministry that we read about in the book of acts from Paul.

            Rome was a wonderful place to live for the rich, but a hard place if you were poor like most people. The divide between rich and poor meant the poor were never far from rioting. Street crime was common, most people lived in “high rise” six-story apartments, and sanitation/water was only available on the first floor. This scenario meant that people have to fend for themselves. Often this was done by the people gathering in neighborhoods according to ethnicity. (Some people have compared this element in Rome to New York City in the 19th century and 20th century.) Charles Swindoll writes, “Life was hard for everyone, but being a Christian in that environment made it even worse. For both Jewish and gentile Christians, the price of discipleship meant the loss of family and clan, including the safety of these provided. They must have felt like squirrels living among angry giants, anyone whom might decide to crush them on a whim.”[35] In this context, emperor Augustus (27 BC – AD 14) added an urban police force (called cohorts urbane) to keep order in the city.

            The city of Rome was also a melting pot of cultures and languages. There were many Jews[36] living there, most of which were poor, although there were some groups of Jews that were better educated and wealthier.[37] The Jews lived as different groups of segregated parts of the city and had their own leaders in those smaller communities. Ancient literature we’ve discovered indicates the Romans looked down on Jews because of circumcision (Rom 2:25–29; 4:9–12), Sabbath-keeping (Rom 14:5–6), and food customs (Rom 14:2–23). The city was polytheistic with worship of many foreign deities alongside emperor worship.

            “During the period of the Roman Republic (509–527 b.c), the Romans adopted and ‘Romanized’ Greek gods. Thus Zeus, the king of the gods, became Jupiter, Hera became Juno, Poseidon became Neptune, Hermes became Mercury, and Aphrodite became Venus. Emperor worship also was encouraged. This worship was enforced in varying degrees, depending on the emperor’s disposition. Devout Jews had very different worship patterns and would never worship the emperor, so the Jewish community was often persecuted and was expelled from Rome several times.”[38]

            Rome was a very religious city. It’s pagan religion focused on Jupiter, other gods, and many superstitions. Various gods, idols, and superstitions from other territories were often brought to Rome when those colonies were conquered. We read about many of these pagan religious practices on Paul’s missionary journeys (Acts 13:6–12; 14:11–18; 16:16–18; 17:16–23; 19:23–41). “Rome was filled with gods, and the prevailing thought was that all the gods were real. Thus, Jews and Christians who insisted on one God were viewed as atheists because they denied the existence of all the other deities.”[39]

THE BEGINNING OF THE CHURCH OF ROME. There are three traditions about who founded the church in Rome. I’ll start with the least likely option and end with the most likely option.

Peter. According to the Catalogus Liberianus 25.4(AD 354) the church was founded by Peter and Peter was its first bishop. Additionally, Irenaeus writes in about AD 180 that Peter and Paul both founded the church in Rome (Haer 3.1.2; 3.3.1).

            However, it seems unlikely because Peter was still in Jerusalem for the Jerusalem Council in AD 50, and we know that Claudias kicked Jews out of the city of Rome because of rioting caused by Christ which occurred in AD 49. (How could Christians be in Rome as a result of Peter’s ministry if he had not yet been to Rome?)

            This also seems unlikely because Paul probably would not have invested time and energy into a city which had already been evangelized (see Rom 15:20 where Paul writes that he won’t build on another man’s foundation). “The question of Peter’s connection with Rome cannot be answered with any conciseness, although any claims that Peter was founder of the church there may at once be dismissed.”[40] Additionally, if Peter had founded the church in Rome, it’s hard to believe Paul would not mention this details somewhere in his letter.

Jewish Converts from Feast of Pentecost. A possible view is that Jews from the city of Rome, who were converted on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:10), could have brought their faith in Jesus as Messiah back to the city of Rome. In this way, the Gospel would have started in Jewish synagogues and spread from there.             However, it seems unlikely a group of new believers like that would establish such an influential church. With that said, this is perhaps the most common view today.

Associates of Paul. Another possible origin of the church in Rome was that associates of the apostle Paul had taken the gospel to the city and began the church there. I think this view is most likely for several reasons.

            First, this is a pattern seen in other areas of the New Testament (Acts 19:10; Col 1:6–7).

            Second, Paul seems to have had a long list of friends and associates in the city (he lists twenty-six by name in Rom 16:3–16 in a way that suggests they had shared a gospel-centered ministry on other occasions).

            Third, the letter does not attempt to defend Paul’s apostolic authority. The readers seem to assume and know he’s an apostle appointed by Christ.

            Fourth, Paul’s first-missionary journey was in AD 47–48 and Romans was written in AD 57, thus leaving a ten-year span in which some of his earliest converts of his missionary trip could have taken the gospel “further” to Rome on his behalf.

            Fifth, the Roman commercial empire spanned many countries and thousands of miles. It should not surprise us that the gospel reached Rome without Paul going there. Maybe someone traveling to a city in which Paul was conducting his first missionary journey (AD 47–48) or second missionary journey (AD 49–52) heard the gospel while traveling there and then returned back to Rome with it. This could have occurred not as just something on “one occasion” or by “one person” but by several different groups at different times, presenting a “composite” founding of the church by different groups at different times.[41]

            Some scholars believe Christianity in Rome consisted of a group of house churches. While Paul sometimes gave greeting to a church (1 Cor 1:2; 2 Cor 1:1), but in his letter to the Romans he greets the Roman Christians as “to all who are beloved of God in Rome, called as saints” (Rom 1:7a).[42] 

THE CHURCH THAT EXISTED IN ROME. Based on the list of Christians in Romans 16, it’s clear there was a significant presence of Christians in Rome. There must have been some Christians who had a significant social status and economic affluence that allowed them a home with a large enough space to gather a group of believers.

            Most people in Rome lived in what was called an insula which was an apartment house.[43] In Rome “patrons” were wealthy persons who were benefactors and protectors of other people. These patrons likely were those who hosted gatherings of Christians in Rome.

            Thus, groups of different house churches in one city likely caused dissension and conflict. It is interesting that in the chapter that mentions the many individuals also contains a strong exhortation against division and dissension (Rom 16:17–19).

            Various house churches scattered throughout Rome have been because no apostolic roots or authority present in the church.

ROMANS AND THE NEW PERSPECTIVE ON PAUL. The book of Romans has been at the center of the teaching known as the “New Perspective on Paul.” By “new” this is a teaching that developed in the late twentieth-century and was popularized by E.P. Sanders, James Dunn, and N.T. Wright.

            The New Perspective on Paul has sought a correct understanding of Judaism in Paul’s day. In their opinion, Martin Luther and other Protestant reformers incorrectly taught that the “law” Paul denounced in Romans was a legalistic system of earning salvation through a merit system of good works. The New Perspective on Paul believes the Reformers were wrong to believe Paul taught in Romans that Judaism offered no forgiveness or grace from God.

            Instead, the New Perspective on Paul believes that when Paul references “law” in Romans, he’s thinking of the maintenance of the Jews’ status as God’s chosen people (not as a means of salvation). I must admit, this shift is subtle, but significant.

            As we conclude our brief look at the New Perspective on Paul I believe Craig Keener rightly observes, “the emerging ‘new perspective’ has yielded a conglomeration of different solutions rather than a new unified understanding of Paul.”[44]

ROMANS UNIQUENESS.[45] Paul’s letter to the Romans is in a class of its own. As we compare Romans with Paul’s other twelve letters as well as other Greco-Roman epistles, Romans is unique in many ways.

Among Paul’s Letters. Romans is unique among Paul’s writings because he did not have a deep personal connection with these people. Romans is similar to Colossians in which Paul had never been to the city in which he was writing a letter to its church.

            Romans is unique among Paul’s writings in that he shares a theological presentation more than a personal correspondence. The book of Romans reads more like a formal lecture or an attorney’s defense than it does a personal letter. Most scholars see Romans 1:18—11:36 as a “treatise” or “essay” embedded within a letter.

            Romans is unique among Paul’s letters in that it is the longest of his letters. The book of Romans contains 7114 words in Greek. It’s first in our listing of Paul’s letters because of its length, but also because of its importance. At this point I believe it’s important for us to recognize how Paul’s letters have been arranged into our Bibles. As you might know, Paul wrote letters to churches (Romans-2 Thessalonians) and he wrote letters to individuals (1 Timothy-Philemon). Within these two groupings, the order is arranged according to length.

AUDIENCE OF ROMANS.

FALSE TEACHINGS CORRECTED IN ROMANS

THE GENRE OF ROMANS. Twenty-one of the twenty-seven New Testament books are letters. Of those twenty-one letters, thirteen of those letters were written by Paul. Paul’s letters make up about one quarter of the New Testament. Only Luke wrote more.

            Letters were occasionally used in Israel and the ancient Near East (see 2 Sam 11:14-15 and Ezra 4—5), but it wasn’t until the Greco-Roman world that letters became a popular and established method of communication.[46]

            In summary, Greco-Roman letters normally included an address and greeting, a body, and conclusion. Christian letters followed the same pattern but added a doxology or benediction after the conclusion.

            It’s important to note that some scholars make a distinction between “letters” and “epistles.” First-century letters were normally private writings that were not meant to be published. First-century epistles were public pieces of literature that were carefully composed and expected to be widely read. If we place each of those categories as opposite ends of an extreme, most of Paul’s writings appear in the middle of those two extremes. “Although the Pauline writings form a corpus today, which have often been given the title ‘epistles,’ it is far from certain that they were originally intended as such by their author, and this title for Romans in particular has often been queried.”[47]

            As I shared earlier, letters were not a typical method of religious communication in Israel and Judaism. The Greco-Roman letter communication was adopted into the first-century Christian Church for several reasons.[48] One, the Christian church was growing quickly and spreading to new distant places, so Christian leaders needed a way to communicate with new leaders and churches from a distance. Two, the Christian leaders were able to use this style of communication to develop and maintain personal relationships and trust with those same people who were often located hundreds of miles away.

            With that said, I believe J. R. Daniel Kirk is correct when he writes, “Paul wrote Romans to address a specific situation. Let me say this differently. Romans is not Paul’s systematic theology. It’s not a timeless bit of reflection on all the awesome stuff God that has done. Romans has often been read like this, especially because Paul had never been to Rome, and there is no indication he had received any specific communication about the situation on the ground.”[49]

PAUL’S EVENTUAL VISIT TO ROME.[50] Paul makes it clear in this letter that he wants to visit Rome (Rom 1:8-15; 15:14-33). But did he ever get to travel there?

            The book of Acts reveals that Paul arrived in Rome in AD 60. Paul likely wrote Romans in AD 57, then faced an arrest, trial, two years of languishing in prison (see Acts 24:27), and a shipwreck endured a shipwreck between Paul’s letter to the Romans and his visit to them.

            Paul probably arrived in Rome in AD 60 (see Acts 28:14-16) to stand trial before one of Nero’s representatives (likely the Praetorian Prefect). At this time the emperor Nero was transitioning from a stable leader to a crazy madman. When Paul arrived in Rome in AD 60 Nero had murdered his mother, his trusted adviser Burrus had died, and the famous teacher Seneca had retired.

            Most scholars believe that Paul was freed from this “first” trial in Rome. Clement writes that Paul “reached the limits of the West” (1 Clement 5:7). Some believe this means he was able to travel to Spain as Paul had intended (Rom 15:24).

            Paul likely was arrested again and imprisoned in Rome. He was then executed there. Several extra-biblical testimonies bear witness to this. Clement said that Paul (and Peter) both died in Rome under suffering instigated by Nero (1 Clement 5:2-5). The Mamertine Prison—Rome’s state prison in the first-century—contains a carving of Paul and Peter baptizing their jailers.

            We do not have specific details of Paul’s second trial or his martyrdom. Church tradition tells us he was beheaded on the Ostian Way near the same place and at approximately the same time as Peter (see Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, 2.25.7-8).

MY FAVORITE QUOTES FROM ROMANS

“Romans may not be the best biblical book to put in the hands of most unsafe people to lead them to salvation. John is better for that purpose. However, Romans is the best book to put in the hands of a saved person to lead him or her to understand and appreciate their salvation.”[51]

            “Romans is the constitution of the church”[52]

            “It has been said that Romans will delight the greatest logician and captivate the mind of the consummate genius, yet it will bring tears to the humblest soul and refreshment to the simplest mind. It will knock you down and then lift you up. It will strip you naked and then clothe you with eternal elegance.”[53]

            “Paul and Romans: an unbeatable combination that delivers the knockout punch to any works-oriented righteousness before God; a soothing remedy for the soul that longs for peace with God; and a hopeful proclamation that God has begun to put the world to rights with himself.”[54]

            “The book of Romans, more than almost any other biblical book, has dramatically shaped church history.”[55]

            “Romans offers so much wisdom to us—if we let it unfurl itself rather than conforming it to our own agendas. Our biggest problem in reading the letter is that we come to it already knowing what it says.”[56]

            “Romans has probably been the object of more intense study by more highly intelligent and motivated individuals than any document in human history.”[57]

            “Christianity has been the most powerful, transforming force in human history—and the book of Romans is the most basic, most comprehensive statement of true Christianity.”[58]

            “Paul wrote to introduce himself to the Romans and to strengthen the faith of these young Christians. The result is a concise, logical, and well-ordered presentation of Christian theology.”[59]

An Outline of ROMANS

I. INTRODUCTION (1:1–17). Romans 1:1-17 is Paul’s longest introduction among any of his letters. In a sense, we could summarize Romans 1—11 as “what to believe.”

A. Greeting (vv. 1-7)

1. The Promise of God Seen in Jesus (vv. 1-4)

2. The Peace of God Seen in Christian (vv. 5-7)

B. Gratitude and Thanksgiving (vv. 8-15)

1. Paul’s Concern for the Romans (vv. 8-12)

2. Paul’s Cause for Writing to the Romans (vv. 13-15)

C. Gospel and Theme (vv. 16-17)   

II. SIN (1:18—3:20) – Why am I this way?

A. The Sin and Guilt of the Gentiles (1:18-32)

1. How They Reject God and Reasons for Condemnation (vv. 18-23)

God’s Revelation Through Nature (vv. 18-20)

Gentiles Rejection of God (vv. 21-23)

2. What Their Consequences Will Be and Results from Condemnation (vv. 24-32)

They get what they want and they worship the creation (vv. 24-25).

They have sex with who they want (vv. 26-27)

They are worthy of death (vv. 28-32).

B. The Sin and Guilt of the Jews (2:1—3:8)

1. God’s Impartial Judgment (2:1-16)[60]

God’s judgment is for the unrepentant (vv. 1-5). In these verses God tells the Jews that they are guilty just as the gentiles are guilty, that God is the one who defines evil, and that God’s judgment will be impartial.

God’s judgment is according to works (vv. 6-11). In these verses God tells the Jews that they will receive judgment just as the gentiles receive judgment, that God is not partial, and that God will impart judgment on all who deserve it.

God’s judgment is by a fair standard (vv. 12-16). In these verses God tells the Jews that the Jews will be judged righteous if they do righteousness, that he will reward those who deserve a good reward, and that he will impart rewards to all who deserve it.

2. God’s Religious Standards (2:17-29)

Jews have broken God’s revealed Law (vv. 17-24).[61] This is a condemnation because of the Jews’ hypocrisy.

Jews have trusted circumcision, not God (vv. 25-29).[62] This is a condemnation because of the Jew’s trust in rites.

3. God’s Determined Faithfulness (3:1-8)

God is still good even when Israel does not believe (vv. 1-4).

God’s word is still binding even when his people reject it (vv. 5-8).

C. The Sin and Guilt of All People (3:9-20)

III. SALVATION (3:21—5:21) – How am I saved?

IV. SANCTIFICATION (6:1—8:39) – How do I grow?

V. SOVERIGNTY (9:1—11:36) – Who’s in charge?

VI. SERVICE (12:1—15:13) – What do I do? Just as we have summarized Romans 1—11 as “what to believe” we could summarize Romans 12—16 as “how to behave.” In Romans 12:1—16:27 we have a combination of both personal responsibility and personal notes from Paul.

VII. CONCLUSION (15:14—16:27)

APPLICATIONS FROM ROMANS

“Most, if not all, of the great revivals and reformations in the history of the church have been directly related to the book of Romans.”[63]

            “Romans speaks to us today just as powerfully as it spoke to men of the first century. It speaks morally, about adultery, fornication, homosexuality, hating, murder, lying, and civil disobedience. It speaks intellectually, telling us that the natural man is confused because he has a reprobate mind. It speaks socially, telling us how we are to relate to one another. It speaks psychologically, telling us where true freedom comes to deliver men from the burden of guilt. It speaks nationally, telling us our responsibility to human government. It speaks internationally, telling us the ultimate destiny of the earth and especially the future of Israel. It speaks spiritually, answering man’s despair by offering hope for the future. It speaks theologically, teaching us the relationship between the flesh and the spirit between law and grace, between works and faith. But most of all, it profoundly brings God himself to us.”[64]

            “Is Romans relevant today? It is—as long as people of every race, culture and nationality are estranged from God because of sin.”[65]

            “What was it like to be a Christian in Rome? The answer—very similar to what it is like today. Of course we don’t have to deal with a Nero, a maniacal dictator breathing threats and carrying them out. But still, real Christians are a distinct minority in society. And we stand out if we stand for Christ. It is possible, of course, to be a secret believer, hiding our faith to avoid trouble. But that reaction is tantamount to denying our Savior. He died for us—we can live for him.”[66]

SERMONS FROM ROMAS – “Just Live by Faith” or “Salvation for Those Who Believe” or “How the Just Live by Faith” or “Righteous Salvation”

1. When a God Plan Comes Together (Rom 1:1-4)
2. God Calls Rome (Rom 1:5-7)
3. When Faith Becomes Famous (Rom 1:8-12)
4. The Whole Gospel for the Whole World (Rom 1:13-15)
5. The One Thing that Changes Everything (Rom 1:16-17)

VARIOUS SERMONS ON ROMANS

• Adam, Me, and the Fruit of the Tree (Rom 5:12-14) [Part of my series on the doctrine of creation]
• The Gift for Sin (Rom 5:15-17) [Part of my series on the doctrine of creation]
• When Grace Wins (Rom 5:18-21) [Part of my series on the doctrine of creation]
• God’s God This (Rom 8:26-30)

---

[1] Ben Witherington III with Darlene Hyatt, Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 2004), 1.

[2] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[3] The following four reasons are adapted from Constable, pp. 3-5.

[4] Joseph A. Fitzmyer S.J., Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, vol. 33, Anchor Yale Bible (New Haven; London: Yale University Press, 2008), 70.

[5] Glenn Kreider, Michael Svigel, and Mark Yarbrough, ed., Exploring Christian Scripture (Brentwood, TN: B & H Academic, 2024), 277.

[6] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 16.

[7] Fitzmyer, Romans, 79.

[8] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 2–3.

[9] Craig S. Keener, Bible Background Commentary, 2nd ed. [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014], 422

[10] A.T. Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament (Nashville, TN: Broadman Press, 1933).

[11] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 4.

[12] As a result of this external evidence, some New Testament introduction books don’t even address “authorship” as a category in their chapters on Romans.

[13] S. M. Kraeger, “Amanuensis,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016). np.

[14] Kraeger, “Amanuensis,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, np.

[15] Kraeger, “Amanuensis,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, np.

[16] See David W. J. Gill, “Erastus the Aedile,” TynD 40 (1989): 293–302. Cited in D. A. Carson and Douglas Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2005), 394.

[17] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 7.

[18] D. Guthrie, “Romans, Epistle to The,” in New Bible Dictionary, ed. D. R. W. Wood et al. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 1027.

[19] “Paul is apparently dealing with a overwhelmingly Gentile group of Christians in Rome who are more well established than the Jewish Christians there (another reason to mention some Jewish Christians by name in ch. 16 and give them a higher honor rating), since at least the leaders among the Jewish Christians are probably only recently back in Rome and getting reestablished. While one of Paul’s purposes in writing this letter is to begin to garner support for his future mission work in the west, another is that he clearly wants the Roman Christians to recognize, endorse, and embody the vision of Jew and Gentile united in Christ which is manifested by the collection and the response Paul is hoping it will receive in Jerusalem.” Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 6.

[20] Douglas Moo, Romans, 2^nd ed., NICNT (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2018), 12.

[21] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 5.

[22] M. Reasoner, “Rome and Roman Christianity,” Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, 854.

[23] Carson and Moo, New Testament Introduction, 395–96.

[24] M. Reasoner, “Rome and Roman Christianity,” Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, 853.

[25] Douglas Moo, Romans, 4–5.

[26] Ben Witherington explains, “It will not do to judge Romans and its rhetoric in the same sort of way one would judge Galatians or 1 Corinthians. While this letter is partially and attempt to establish rapport with and authority over the Roman gentile Christians, it is not an example of exercise of the authority we would see where Paul already had a power relationship.” Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 2.

[27] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 8.

[28] Inc Merriam-Webster, Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. (Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2003).

[29] Guthrie, “Romans, Epistle to The,” in New Bible Dictionary, 1025.

[30] Guthrie, “Romans, Epistle to The,” in New Bible Dictionary, 1025.

[31] Bruce B. Barton, David Veerman, and Neil S. Wilson, Romans, Life Application Bible Commentary (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992), xx.

[32] Barton, Veerman, and Wilson, Romans, xv.

[33] Reasoner, “Rome and Roman Christianity,” 851.

[34] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 11.

[35] Charles Swindoll, Insights on Romans, (Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale, ), 8.

[36] One resource suggests that 20,000–50,000 Jews were living in the city, which was about 5 percent of the population (Craig S. Keener, Bible Background Commentary, 2nd ed. [Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2014], 422). Another resource suggests 50,000 (Fitzmyer, Romans, 27.

[37] Keener, Bible Background Commentary, 422.

[38] Barton, Veerman, and Wilson, Romans, xvi.

[39] Barton, Veerman, and Wilson, Romans, xvi.

[40] Guthrie, “Romans, Epistle to The,” in New Bible Dictionary, 1024.

[41] Kenneth Hanna, From Gospels to Glory, 162–63

[42] M. Reasoner, “Rome and Roman Christianity,” Dictionary of Paul and His Leaders, 853.

[43] Witherington, Paul’s Letter to the Romans, 9.

[44] Keener, Bible Background Commentary, 423.

[45] Parts of this section have been adapted from Constable, pp. 6-7.

[46] Carson and Moo, New Testament Introduction, p. 332 (double check page number).

[47] Fitzmyer, Romans, 68.

[48] The following two reasons are adapted from Constable, p. 6.

[49] J. R. Daniel Kirk, Romans for Normal People (Perkiomenville, PA: The Bible for Normal People, 2022), 7.

[50] Various parts of this section are adapted from M. Reasoner, “Rome and Roman Christianity,” Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, 854-55.

[51] Constable, 15.

[52] Tony Evans, Evans Bible Commentary, p. .

[53] John MacArthur, Romans 1—8, The MacArthur New Testament Commentary (Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1991), xi.

[54] C. Marvin Pate, Romans, Teach the Text Commentary Series (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2013), 1.

[55] Pate, Romans, 6.

[56] Kirk, Romans for Normal People, p. 15.

[57] Boice, Romans, vol 1: Justificatin by Faith, 9.

[58] Boice, Romans, vol. 1, 13, italics original.

[59] Barton, Veerman, and Wilson, Romans,  xxvi.

[60] Outline of Romans 2:1-16 is adapted from Schriener, p. 30.

[61] Hanna, From Gospels to Glory, 179.

[62] Hanna, From Gospels to Glory, 179.

[63] MacArthur, Romans 1—8,  ix.

[64] MacArthur, Romans 1—8, xii.

[65] Boice, Romans, vol. 1, 17.

[66] Barton, Veerman, and Wilson, Romans, xvii.

An Introduction to Malachi

The book of Malachi receives little attention and what it does receive is usually within the context of a sermon on tithing. Surely, there is more to this little book than a proof text for a campaign or building program. I agree with Allen Ross who writes, “It is a book that should be studied regularly by Christians, or better yet, preached often in churches with all the passionate intensity of the prophet.”[1] Even though the circumstances between Malachi’s time and now have changed, the message is still just as relevant. Israel, for the best, had done away with idolatry because of their captivity in Babylon. But God’s work to purify the people was not yet done. Malachi wants the people to “get things right.” If I was to summarize this book in one word it would be “giving” and one phrase it would be “abiding in God.”[2]

BIG IDEA. God has given Israel a path to follow, but Israel wonders where God is because they have left his path. If they return to God’s path they will find God. The book of Malachi is about the sins and judgment of Israel, but also how God still loves his people and will restore them.[3]

KEY VERSES: “Remember the law of Moses My servant, even the statutes and ordinances which I commanded him in Horeb for all Israel” (Malachi 4:4, NASB).[4]

AUTHOR. Malachi 1:1 identifies the author as the man, Malachi. He is not mentioned elsewhere in the Old Testament, but he is extensively quoted in the New Testament. For example, Malachi 4:5-6 is quoted in Matthew 11:10, 14; 17:11-12; Mark 9:10-11; Luke 1:19. Malachi 3:1 is quoted in Matthew 11:10; Mark 1:2. Malachi 1:2-3 is quoted in Romans 9:13.

            Nothing is known of Malachi’s family line. Malachi is one of the many prophetic books that name its author, however some believe “Malachi” is a designation for “messenger” or “my messenger” from Malachi 3:1 (which is a “divine possessive”). In this way, some believe the book of Malachi was written by an anonymous author, and “Malachi” is not a proper name.[5] The Hebrew word “Malachi” appears in both Malachi 1:1 and Malachi 3:1. However, in Malachi 3:1 that word refers to a future coming messenger (not to the prophet Malachi). In other words, the Hebrew word, “malachi” which means “My Messenger” in Malachi 3:1 is the one identified as the person coming in the future and should not be identified as the author.

            I love this summary from the Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, “The prophet Malachi preached to a diverse audience. His sermons were directed to the disillusioned, the cynical, the callous, the dishonest, the apathetic, the doubting, the skeptical and the outright wicked in postexilic Judah. Yet, as a sensitive pastor, Malachi offered the ‘valentine’ of God’s love to a disheartened people. As a lofty theologian, he instructed the people in a basic doctrinal catechism, highlighting the nature of God as universal king, faithful suzerain and righteous judge. As Yahweh’s stern prophet, Malachi rebuked corrupt priests and warned of the coming day of God’s judgment. As spiritual guide, he exhorted his audience to a more sincere life of worship and challenged the people to live out the ethical standards of the Mosaic covenant. Most important, Malachi was Yahweh’s messenger and his essential message to Israel was profoundly simple: ‘ “I have always loved you,” said the Lord’ (Mal 1:2).”[6]

AUDIENCE.  Life was not easy for the Jews that were in Judah after the exile. Their harvests were poor and were the focus of locust damage (Mal 3:11). Both the people and priests were violating the mosaic law regarding sacrifices, tithes, offerings, and marriages. The fire, passion, and fervor that Israel had to restore their temple, city, and nation had extinguished itself.

POSITION IN THE CANON. In the Hebrew Bible, Malachi brings the second section, neb’im, of the three-part cannon to an end. In our English bibles the book of Malachi ends the Old Testament because our English Bibles follow the Septuagint (known as the LXX and represents the Greek tradition). This position likely was because Malachi was the last to minister. The book concludes with a look forward with anticipation to the prophet Elijah, which Jesus identifies as John the Baptist (Matt 11:14).

DATE. The situation of the temple, state of sacrifices, and way of life suggest a date after Haggai and Zachariah. Because there are no time indicators in the book,[7] the time decision is based on internal evidence. The author never links his work to a specific or precise historical event. Here are three potential views that scholars often describe. I agree with the Lexham Bible Dictionary that states, “most scholars find it difficult to pinpoint the exact time of Malachi’s ministry in Israel.”[8]

Just Prior to the Book of Ezra (likely before BC 540). This is because there is no mention in Malachi of Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:3) or Nehemiah (Neh 13:13, 23-27). Some say it was Malachi’s preaching that prepared the people’s hearts for the repentance that occurred under Ezra (see Ezra 9:1—10:5).

Just Prior to Nehemiah’s Governorship During the Early Years of Nehemiah’s Work (about BC 444). Because of the similar conditions between Ezra and Malachi as well as Nehemiah 13:10, it suggests that since Malachi gives no hints of reforming, then the issues Malachi dealt with continued.

Contemporary to Nehemiah in about BC 433—424.[9] Most conservative Christian scholars believe Malachi was a contemporary of Nehemiah because of similar conditions (Mal 3:5; Neh 5:1-13) related to tithing (Mal 3:7-10; Neh 10:37-29), divorce and mixed marriages (Mal 2:10-16; Neh 10:30; 13:23-29).[10] This is the view I hold. In my opinion, Nehemiah’s absence from Jerusalem (433-424 BC) best describes Malachi’s time in Jerusalem. Nehemiah returns in Nehemiah 13:1-31. The New Bible Dictionary agrees, “It is impossible to date the book precisely, but it may be that it was composed during Nehemiah’s visit to Susa. At least it would seem to come from approximately this time.”[11] In summary, the topics that Malachi addresses (divorce, mixed marriages, social injustice, corruption in the priesthood) suggest that he was a contemporary to Ezra and Nehemiah who were both combating these same issues.

Another View of 516-490 BC. Careful language study of Malachi’s oracles reveals a close connection on the Hebrew language used by Haggai and Zechariah.^[12]

Concluding Thoughts on the Date of Malachi. As we discuss the date of the book of Malachi we need to also keep in mind the picture this author paints, “Malachi resembles a legal case that is set within a courtroom. Most of the prophets came preaching messages from God, proclaiming destruction for sin and restoration for repentance through well-crafted rhetoric. Malachi, on the other hand, seems comfortable in the language of the priest.”[13]

QUESTION AND ANSWER FORMAT. There are twenty-three questions in the book of Malachi. Since Malachi’s audience was skeptical, he used interrogation and reply as a way for his message to penetrate the people.[14] Malachi knew what the people were thinking so he dealt with their questions and answers.[15] It could be said that Malachi follows a point-counterpoint format. He raises a point made by certain people, and then contradicts it. We see the same pattern in Jeremiah 2:23-25, 35-27; 8:8-9; Ezekiel 12:21-28; Isaiah 40:27-28.

THEMES. I believe there are four themes prominent in the book of Malachi. Let’s examine each one briefly.

Marriage. God is unhappy with Israel because they have married daughters from foreign gods (Mal 2:10-12) and have in effect divorced God (Mal 2:13-28).

Tithing/Giving. Israel is giving a poor quality of gifts to God (Mal 1:6-14) as well as a poor amount (Mal 3:7-12).

Priests. God holds the priests responsible for all the bad that has occurred (Mal 2:1-9).

God’s Law. The people had walked away from God’s word. Various places in the book God’s word is described as “commandment,” “covenant,” “instruction,” “my ways,” “my statutes,” “book of remembrances,” “ordinances.”

An Outline of the Book of Malachi

I. HONOR YOUR GOD (ch. 1)

A. Because He Loved You and Chose You (1:1-6)

B. With Your Offering (1:7-14)

II. HONOR YOUR COMMITMENT (ch. 2)

A. The Priests Need to Return to Godly Ways (2:1-9)

B. The Husbands Need to Return to Godly Ways (2:10-17)

III. HONOR YOUR MESSENGERS (ch. 3)

A. There Will Be One Clearing the Path (3:1-6)

B. There Was One Telling You the Path to Take (3:7-18)

IV. HONOR YOUR LORD (ch. 4)

PERSONAL APPLICATIONS

ARTICLES FROM MALACHI

1. The Love We Know (Mal 1:2)
2. Godly Praise (Mal 1:5)
3. Giving God the Best (Mal 1:6)
4. The Way We Are Right with God (Mal 1:6-11)
5. Temple Priests in Today’s Church (Mal 2:5-7)
6. Spouse Selection (Mal 2:6-10)
7. Marriage Dedication (Mal 2:13-16)
8. God’s Messengers (Mal 3:1)
9. Godly Gift Giving (Mal 3:6-12)
10. The Size of the Tithe (Mal 3:10)
11. The Blessing of a Tithe (Mal 3:10-12)
12. Why Do Evil People Prosper? (Mal 3:13-15)
13. What Do Evil People Have Prepared for Them in the Future? (Mal 4:1)
14. How Do We Overcome Evil in This World? (Mal 3:16-18; 4:2-6)
15. Vacation in Heaven (Mal 4:2)

SERMONS FROM MALACHI – “A U-TURN TOWARD GOD”

(sorry for the poor audio quality on these sermons which were recorded in 2021 before our church had upgraded our audio recording equipment)

1. When We Know It But Don’t Feel It (Mal 1:1–5)
2. A Holy God Deserves a Holy Offering (Mal 1:6–14)
3. Priestly Problems (Mal 2:1–9)
4. Commitment Means Committed (Mal 2:10–16)
5. God’s Messengers (Mal 2:17—3:5)
6. Godly Gift Giving (Mal 3:6–12)
7. Committed Solutions for Complication Problems (Mal 3:13—4:6)

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[1] Allen Ross, Malachi Then and Now (Bellingham, WA: Lexham, 2018), vii.

[2] In the future I hope to update this article with additional contributions from: Tremper Longman III and Raymond Dillard, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 2^nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2006); Ken Hanna, From Moses to Malachi (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015); Michael Shepherd, A Commentary on the Book of the Twelve (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2018); C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago, IL: Moody, 2007); Warren Wiersbe, Be Amazed (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2010); Ralph Smith, Micah–Malachi, WBC 32 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic: 1984); Robert Chisholm, Jr., Interpreting the Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1990).

[3] “The message of Malachi is all about ‘getting things right.’ The thrust of Malachi’s preaching may be placed under the umbrella theme ‘covenant,’ specifically the covenant of Jacob (i.e., the patriarchs [Mal 1:2]), the covenant of Levi (Mal 2:4–5, an obscure reference, perhaps an allusion to the covenant made with Phinehas in Num 25:10–13), the covenant of marriage (Mal 2:14) and the covenant of Moses (Mal 4:4). The essential idea of covenant is that of an agreement or treaty that establishes a relationship between parties with attendant obligations and responsibilities. It is not surprising, then, that three of Malachi’s disputations deal with right relationships. The prophetic messenger also works on the premise that proper knowledge of God and his covenant is essential to maintaining these right relationships.” A. E. Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, ed. Mark J. Boda and Gordon J. McConville (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2012), 530.

[4] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[5] “The argument cannot be irrefutably proved either way. Thus, we can only uphold the tradition that a prophet named Malachi, about whom we know virtually nothing, served as God’s ‘messenger’ for this oracle.” Rob O’Lynn, “Malachi, Book of,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary, ed. John D. Barry et al. (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[6] Hill, “Malachi, Book of,” in Old Testament Dictionary: Prophets, 525.

[7] The only exception is the designation of Edom (Mal 1:3-4) which has a broad range of years.

[8] O’Lynn, “Malachi, Book of,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary.

[9] Ross, Malachi Then and Now, 4. Ross believes the date would have been 440-420.

[10] Kiel takes this position, 12 Minor Prophets, vol. 2, 427.

[11] E. J. Young and J. G. Baldwin, “Malachi, Book Of,” in New Bible Dictionary, ed. D. R. W. Wood et al. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 718–719.

[12] See Andrew Hill, “Malachi” in Richard Patterson and Andrew Hill’s Cornerstone Biblical Commentary vol. 10, Minor Prophets: Hosea-Malachi, ed. by Philip Comfort (Carole Stream, IL: Tyndale, 2008), 611-612.

[13] O’Lynn, “Malachi, Book of,” in The Lexham Bible Dictionary.

[14] Ross, Malachi Then and Now, 5-6.

[15] Ross, Malachi Then and Now, 6.

While Joel is famous for its eschatological reference to “locusts” and the “Day of the Lord,” it is perhaps most relevant to our lives as it teaches us about God’s character, the holy lives he calls us to live, and how God is forgiving and patient with us when we repent and return to him. The one-word description I would give for Joel would be “judging.”

BIG IDEA. Joel preached about impending doom that would come upon Judah, however because of God’s loving and forgiving character, God would relent if Judah repented of their wrong, and as a result would punish Judah’s enemies.

KEY VERSES. These are the two verses I believe are the key to this book: “’Yet even now,’ declares the Lord, ‘Return to Me with all your heart, And with fasting, weeping and mourning; And rend your heart and not your garments.’ Now return to the Lord your God, For He is gracious and compassionate, Slow to anger, abounding in lovingkindness And relenting of evil” (Joel 2:12-13, NASB).[1]  I also like Joel 3:20–21 as potential key verses of the book. However, some people see Joel 2:18 as a “hinge” verse or “pivot” verse in the book. Ken Hanna says Joel 1:15 and 2:28-29 are key verses of the book.[2]

AUTHOR. We learn about Joel in the opening verse of the book: “The word of the LORD that came to Joel, the son of Pethuel” (Joel 1:1, NASB). There are twelve other men named “Joel” in the Bible, however none of those men have the same father’s name that Joel has in Joel 1:1.[3] The name joel in Hebrew means “Yahweh is God.” We have no other biographical information about him. “The fact that no other information is included in the superscription may imply that Joel was well known to his contemporaries and that further identification was unnecessary.”[4]

There is no reason (as others have stated) that we should question that Joel was a real prophet responsible for this book. We have no information about which king was in charge when Joel spoke, but we can make a good guess about where he was when he wrote down these words. Joel likely was a native of Jerusalem from where he prophesied (Joel 1:9; 2:15–17, 23, 32; 3:1). Joel likely was in Jerusalem when he recorded this book for two reasons. One, he calls for the trumpet to sound in Zion (Joel 2:1, 15). Two, he speaks of reviving Jerusalem and Judah (Joel 3:1, 16). He was obviously from Judah based on regular references to Zion, Jerusalem, and Judah. Furthermore, some believe that Joel was a priest as well as a prophet based on his mention of both the temple and the priests (Joel 1:13–14; 2:17). However, he at times suggests that he is distinct from the priests (Joel 1:13; 2:17).  

AUDIENCE. Joel’s message is delivered to the people and priests of the temple in Jerusalem (Joel 1:2, 13). Israel is not mentioned except in a generic manner to describe the people of God (Joel 2:27; 3:2, 16). Following are mentions in the book: “Zion”[5] (seven times in Joel 2:1, 15, 23, 32; 3:16, 17, 21), “Jerusalem” (six times in Joel 2:32; 3:1, 6, 16, 17, 20), “Judah” (six times in Joel 3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19, 20), “inhabitants” of the land (three times in Joel 1:2, 14; 2:1), God’s “people” (six times in 2:16, 18, 19, 26; 3:2, 16), and “elders” (1:2, 14). It has been said, and I would agree, that a present crisis among the nation appears to be the occasion for prophesying about a future catastrophe.

DATE. Joel, along with Obadiah, are prophets we cannot date with certainty. Various dates have been proposed from the ninth century until second centuries. “Probably no book of the Bible has had a wider range of dates assigned to it.”[6] We cannot establish the date with dogmatism, however three dates have commonly been proposed.

            In Joel several nations are mentioned as enemies of Israel (Phoenicians, Philistines, Egypt, Edom, the Greeks, Sabateans). It’s tempting to use the names of these enemies to date the book. However, these are traditional enemies of Israel, so to date the book based on when these nations were prominent or simply active is cautious. Greek trade in the Levant is known from sources of Assyria in as early as the eighth century (Joel 3:6).[7] The Sabeans dominated trade routes to the east in the fifth century (Joel 3:8), but they were also active in the period of Solomon (1 Kings 10; 2 Chron 9).[8]

            Another puzzling aspect to Joel’s work is that it is similar to several other prophets. Did Joel prophesy first and others quote him? Did Joel prophesy later and quote those other prophets? Did Joel use common language, images, and metaphors that all prophets used?[9] To be transparent, we are not always sure. With that said, let’s look at the three common dates proposed for Joel.

Early Pre-Exilic (835–796 BC or 835–830 BC). This would be early in the reign of Joash before the Assyrian period. This date coincides with King Joash (835–795 BC) who was under the regency of priests when he ascended to the throne as king (2 Kings 11:12, 17, 21; 12:2; 2 Chron 22:16–17; 24:15).

Strengths.

1. Location in the Canon between Hosea (8^th century) and Amos (8^th century)[10] favors an early date.
2. Presumes the existence and routine operation of the temple (Joel 1:9, 13–16; 2:15–17).
3. The wall around Jerusalem was still standing (Joel 2:9). This likely points to a time before the destruction of Jerusalem by Babylon in 586 BC.
4. Reference to pre-exilic enemies such as Tyre, Sidon, Philistia (Joel 3:4), Egypt, and Edom (Joel 3:19) support an early pre-exilic date. If the book was written in post-exilic time, we would expect to see the enemies as Syria, Assyria, and Babylon. “If the Book of Joel was written in the ninth century b.c., the reference to Egypt in Joel 3:19 may allude to her acts of violence committed during the invasion of the Egyptian Pharaoh Shishak (ca 926 b.c.; cf. 1 Kings 14:25–26).”^[11]
5. No mention of kings or monarchy might suggest the monarchy has a limited role when Joash was under the regency of priests when he ascended to the throne at the age of seven (see 2 Kings 11–2; 2 Chron 23–24).
6. Absence of allusions to Syria, Assyria, and Babylonians suggests an early pre-exilic date before these nations became prominent enemies of Israel.
7. Conversely, the references to Egypt and Edom do support an early pre-exilic date as these were prominent enemies of Judah during the ninth century.
8. It appears that the book of Amos, which was written later, borrows from Joel as Joel was written first. For example, it appears Amos 1:2 is a quote of Joel 3:16 and Amos 9:13 is a quote of Joel 3:18.
9. Assyrian inscriptions made in the eighth century mention the Greeks in a similar way to Joel 3:6.
10. The style and structure of the Hebrew text in Joel suggests a pre-exilic date. In the book of Joel there does not appear any influence of the Persian language or Greek language into Joel’s wording. We often see this influence in post-exilic books such as Daniel, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi, etc.

Weaknesses

1. The LXX does not place Joel between Hosea and Joel, but instead after Micah.
2. There’s no condemnation of worship of foreign deities or gods in Joel, which was often a pre-exilic staple for prophets of that time.
3. There’s no mention of a king in Judah. However, Joel (if it’s pre-exilic) is not the only early prophet that does not mention a king. Obadiah, Jonah, Nahum, and Habakkuk do not directly mention a king in Judah even though they were pre-exilic prophets.
4. Most Old Testament prophets in the Babylonian period delivered oracles against the nations of Tyre, Sidon, Philistia, Egypt, and Edom (Jer 46—47; Ezek 27—30; Zeph 2:4–7).
5. Joel referenced a dispersion of Jews from Judah into surrounding nations (Joel 3:1–2), which is something Assyria and Babylon both did, but not in the ninth century. “Population relocation was a routine policy of the Assyrians; the annals of Sennacherib report that he had already subjected Judah to a major deportation, so that references to a Diaspora need not refer to the Babylonian captivity alone.”[12]
6. Joel regularly mentions Judah and Jerusalem, but not Israel or Samaria, thus suggesting a date after 722 BC when the Assyrians destroyed Samaria and took Israel into captivity. However, Joel is a smaller book with only three chapters. If we looked at Amos 1—4 (without a superscription) or Micah 5—7, we might make the same conclusion, but we know from the expanded portions of those books that there was a king at that time.
7. While a reference to Tyre, Sidon, Philistia, Egypt, and Edom (Joel 3:4, 19) might suggest a ninth century date, Old Testament Babylonian period prophets also delivered oracles against those same nations mentioned (see Jer 46—47; 49:7–22; Ezek 27—30; Zeph 2:4–7).

Post-Exilic. This would be after the exile of 586 BC. This is perhaps the most common view today among Old Testament scholars.

Strengths

1. There’s no mention of kings or royal officials in Joel. In Joel the leadership of the community appears to be done by elders and priests (Joel 1:2, 13; 2:16).
2. Joel mentions a dispersion of Jews into the surrounding lands (Joel 3:1–2), which would match the exile.
3. There is no mention or condemnation of worshipping foreign gods or incorporating them into Yahweh worship. This usually was typical of post-exilic prophets and life in Judah after the exile.
4. Joel 3:1–2, 17 refers to the destruction of Jerusalem and Babylonian exile. This is an interpretation referencing the temple in Joel 1:9, 13; 2:17 and applies to the second temple rebuilt in 515 BC.
5. Joel 1:2; 2:16 references elders rather than a king as leaders of the community, which is more consistent with a post exilic period (see Ezra 10:14).
6. Joel appears to quote other prophets which were written before him. Joel 2:3 quotes Ezekiel 36:35. Joel 2:10 quotes Ezek 32:7. Joel 2:27–28 quotes Ezek 39:28–29. Ezekiel was a post-exilic prophet thus Joel was written after him.

Weaknesses

1. We would expect the enemies, if Joel was post-exilic, to be identified as Arameans, Assyrians, or Babylonians, but this is not the case (Joel 3:4, 19).
2. While there is no reference to kings or a monarchy, scripture tells us that elders were prominent in Judean society before the exile (2 Kings 23:1; Jer 26:17; Lam 5:12, 14).
3. While it might appear Joel quotes earlier prophets, it is not always clear who is quoting who.

Late Pre-Exilic. Some believe the book of Joel was written in 597–587 BC. This we call the “late pre-exilic” period. This view slides in between the two views I’ve shared above.

Strengths

1. There’s no mention of the northern kingdom. The repeated designation of Judah as “Israel” (Joel 2:27; 3:2, 16) assumes a time when the 10 northern tribes had been taken off to exile in 722 BC.
2. Joel 3:2b references a scattering of God’s people and dividing the land. This could refer to the Babylonian invasion of 597 BC when 10,000 of Judah’s finest men were deported to Babylon (see 2 Kings 24:10–16).
3. Joel’s reference to the temple would make sense if he wrote from 597 to 587 BC because the temple (Joel 1:9, 13; 2:17) was not destroyed until 586 BC (2 Kings 25:9).
4. Joel 1:15 and 2:11 would anticipate the final destruction of Jerusalem (in 586 BC as recorded in 2 Kings 25:1–21) and this would also connect “the day of the Lord” to that event.
5. The references in Joel 3:6 to the slave trade between the Phoenecians and Greeks (or Ionians) harmonizes well with a late pre-exilic date. See Ezek 27:13 which also references this same type of economic arrangement.
6. Zephaniah is a late pre-exilic minor prophet and the book of Joel shares many things in common with that book.

Weaknesses

1. Joel 2:18–19 Appears to reveal God’s mercy to Joel’s generation. This implies that they truly repented. This event is hard to harmonize with Judah’s final days because 2 Kings 23:26–27 indicates that Josiah’s revival was good, but not severe enough to cause God to relent.  

Current Scholars on the Date of Joel. “Joel is a unified work composed under the circumstances of an invasion against the city of Jerusalem (and thus, of course, Judah) by Mesopotamian enemy forces, either Assyria or Babylonia. If this admittedly speculative assessment is correct, the words of the book would likely have been spoken on one of these occasions: the Assyrian invasion of 701 B.C., the Babylonian invasion of 598, or the Babylonian invasion of 588. There is no reason to think, therefore, that the book’s content and perspective are preexilic rather than postexilic.”[13]

            “In conclusion, it is impossible to be dogmatic about the date of the writing of Joel. The language of Joel 3:2b seems to favor a postexilic date. This verse suggests that nations in the future will be judged for having continued the policies of ancient Babylon in scattering the Israelites and dividing their land. Such a view is consistent with (but not proved by) several other observations (such as the reference to Phoenician-Ionian slave trade, the form of government implied in the book, and the literary parallels with other prophets). If one accepts a postexilic date, the references to the temple necessitate a date some time after 516 B.C. However, all this must remain tentative. Understandably, conservative scholars differ on the date of Joel.”^[14]

            “The dating of Joel has had as much latitude as Obadiah, ranging from the ninth to the forth centuries BC. Fortunately there are no cardinal points of orthodoxy at stake in the matter. With no indication of date in the superscription and no clear corroborative evidence in other prophetic and historical books (as with Jonah), the matter must rest in the uncertain hands of internal evidence.”[15]

Conclusion on the Date of Joel. With that said, no one can be dogmatic on the date of the book of Joel. Just like Obadiah, we might make an educated guess, but we do not know for sure when Joel recorded his words. However, most of the book can be read, studied, and preached with a goal of application without specific requirements on a date. In this way, if we keep our exposition general without a specific date and the sins general without specific sins identified in the book, then the book is applicable to today’s audiences.

THEMES

Yahweh’s Sovereignty over the Nations. God makes it clear that he controls the nations. He states that if his people are not obedient to him (over whom he has given promises) then he will use other nations to punish his nation. “Joel’s depiction of the absolute authority of Yahweh over all the peoples of the earth is among the strongest in the Old Testament.”[16] Duane Garrett reminds us that, “God is merciful, and when his people call on him, he quickly desists from punishing and heals those whom he has wounded.”[17]

Zion. In Joel we learn about both God’s love for his people and his land. (See notes on audience above for references to Zion, Jerusalem, Judah, etc.) In addition to those place names, there are also various addresses to the inhabitants of the land, the elders, and the people of the land. I’ve chosen “Zion” as the theme here instead of “Israel” or “Jerusalem” or “Judah” because “Zion” represents both the geographical location as well as God’s chosen people. As one scholar has suggested, “Zion is connected with Jerusalem but actually transcends the geographical city. It represents the conviction that Israel is the chosen nation; that Yahweh, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, is the one true God; and that the Davidic monarch is destined to rule all the nations of the world.”[18] Specifically, Zion is mentioned seven times (Joel 2:1, 15; 23; 32; 3:16, 17; 21). Jerusalem is mentioned six times (Joel 2:32; 3:1, 6, 16, 17, 20). and Judah is mentioned six times (Joel 3:1, 6, 8, 18, 19, 20). I believe that these three words are various addresses to the inhabitants, elders, and people of the land.  

The Day of the LORD.[19] While there are various interpretations of “the day of the Lord” regarding its time (whether past or future) as well as its effect (limited or universal), the day of the Lord is a topic woven throughout this book. While the day of the Lord is referred to many times in the book (and one might even say that the entire book is about the day of the Lord) it is specifically discussed in Joel 1:15; 2:1, 11, 31; 3:14. As a general rule, the day of the Lord is a future time of accountability. The book of Joel provides a more graphic detail of the day of the Lord than any other prophetic book. I like how Charles Ryrie summarizes this theme, “The Day of the Lord, the major theme of this prophecy, involves God’s special intervention in the affairs of human history.”^[20]

Locusts. The book of Joel is perhaps best known for the locusts described in it. One of my earliest memories at seminary was in our Bible study methods class where Dr. Mark Bailey said some people believe the locusts described in the book of Joel are modern day helicopters. (I do not hold that interpretation, but I have always remembered it as an option!) Locusts are introduced in chapter one, used in chapter two, and their effect is seen in chapter three. In the NASB we learn about “gnawing locusts” (Joel 1:4; 2:25), “swarming locusts” (Joel 1:4 [2t]; 2:25), “creeping locusts” (Joel 1:4 [2t]; 2:25), and “stripping locusts” (Joel 1:4; 2:25). It’s important to note that locusts are a warning curse. Not the final curse by God.

MISCELANEOUS QUOTES ON JOEL. “Written in Hebrew poetry, the language of the book manifests a poet’s eyes and a scribe’s skilled pen. His imagery is artful, the product of a mind that thinks in similes and poetic images”[21]

“At present, then, virtually no consensus can be claimed for scholarship on Joel, whether as to date, or unity, or theological perspective, or even the literalness of the imagery. Noticeably missing from recent scholarship on Joel has been attention to his dependence on covenantal ideas and structures, particularly those of the Mosaic covenant sanctions.”[22]

“The Book of Joel never views disaster as only a natural event or as an accident. All things are under God’s control and, more specifically, relate to God’s larger purposes for the world and Israel. As such, Joel contributes to our understanding of the problem of theodicy. In particular, Joel enables us to see that while disasters can be very painful and are a legitimate reason for mourning, they are always within the plan of God. There is ample reason to seek for grace here. By grace we remain in a state of repentance, and by grace we discern the larger plans for good behind our temporary setbacks and hardships.”[23]

“The success of the incorporation of the book of Joel into the overall program of the Twelve (Hos. 3:4–5) is attested by the citation of the book to explain the Pentecost event and to look forward to times of refreshing when Christ returns in the Day of the LORD (Acts 2–3). Here is the ongoing significance of the book as Christian Scripture for the church. It is indispensable for our understanding of the eschatological Day of the LORD in the Twelve, the Hebrew Bible, and in Christian theology. Without such hope, it is difficult for the individual believer to make sense of his or her daily life and struggles.”[24]

“A man of implicit faith in God, Joel imparts that reliance on the sufficiency of God and his prior claim on the believer’s life in every section of the book.”^[25]

OUTLINE OF THE BOOK OF JOEL

“From Ruin to Renewal: Sermons from Joel”

“From God’s Destruction to Demonstration of Love”

I. LAMENT (Joel 1:1—2:17). One might say that Joel 1:1—2:17 describes judgement against Judah while Joel 2:18—3:21 describes judgment against the nations.

A. Destruction (1:1–20). In this first chapter we see a devastation by locusts in the past (vv. 2–14), a dreadful day of the Lord in the future (v. 15), and a drought following the locusts (vv. 16–20).[26] Another way to view this first chapter is to see the coming of locusts (vv. 2–4), call for personal penitence (vv. 5–12), communal lament (vv. 13–18), and crisis (vv. 19–20).

1. Calamity Comes (vv. 1–7). This provides awareness because of what the locusts destroyed.

2. Call to Cry Out (vv. 8–20). This shows the need for application of what the Lord demanded.

B. Day of the Lord (2:1–17). After a devastating locust plague we would expect a call to lament. Instead, Joel announces a new threat is coming that’s worse than the one they just experienced. My exposition shows, I hope, that from Joel’s standpoint chapter one is past and chapter two is future.

1. Invasion of the Land (2:1–11). In this section the theme of Joel 1:15 is more fully developed.

2. Invitation of the Lord to His People (2:12–17). In this section we see two formal appeals for repentance (vv. 12–14 and vv. 15–17). Joel 2:12–14 is an invitation to repent and Joel 2:15–17 is a summons to assemble.  While the invasion of the land (vv. 1–11) was an imminent event the invitation of the Lord (vv. 12–17) is timeless. Starting in Joel 2:18 we read about God’s predictions of benefit for God’s people and subjugation of God’s people’s enemies.

As we approach Joel 2:12 it’s important to note a chiastic structure that some scholars see in the book of Joel. Here’s one I’ve adapted from Duane Garrett that I think is true to the text:

A–Punishment by Locusts (Joel 1:2-20)

            B–Punishment by Northern Army (Joel 2:1-11)

                        C–Transition because of Repentance (Joel 2:12-19)

            B’–Grace in Northern Army Destroyed (Joel 2:20)

A’–Grace in Rain Poured out to Heal the Land (Joel 2:21-27)^[27]

Another chiastic structure of this section could be:

A–Restoration of Crops and Cessation of Shame (Joel 2:19)

            B–Reference to Elimination of Enemies (Joel 2:20a)

                        C– Praise and Exhortation (Joel 2:20b–24). This section has two cycles (vv.                                              20b–21b; 21c–24). The second cycle expands and repeats the three elements of the first cycle (v. 20b with v. 21c; v. 21a with v. 22; v. 21b with vv. 23–24).

            B’– Reference to Elimination of Enemies (Joel 2:25)

A’– Restoration of Crops and Cessation of Shame (Joel 2:26–27)[28]

II. LORD’S RESPONSE (2:18—3:21). The first section of Joel was about Judah’s repentance and lament (1:1—2:17), now we learn about God’s response to that lament (2:18—3:21). The tone of the book of Joel dramatically changes in Joel 2:18. Thus far a lament on the locust plague, its affects, and a more severe judgment have been described. Now the Jews enjoy a “return to prosperity, receive the Holy Spirit, and see their enemies’ armies face the full fury of God.”[29] In this way, a new section begins in Joel 2:18 that focuses on the blessings God gives to his repentant people. Perhaps there is an interval between Joel 2:17 and Joel 2:18 in which the people have repented. Because of that repentance the problems of Joel 1:1—2:17 are fixed by the Lord: physical restoration (Joel 2:18–27), spiritual restoration (Joel 2: 28–32), and national restoration (Joel 3:1–21).

A. Intervention (2:18–32). Joel 1:1–20 has shown us the current crisis of Joel’s day, Joel 2:1–27 has shown us the potential conflict, and Joel 2:28—3:21 will reveal the continuing circumstances Israel will enjoy in the end-times.

1. Forgiveness from God (2:18–27). An interesting observation is while there is an occasional shift to the third person, all of Joel 2:19—3:21 is an oracle of salvation in which God is the speaker. An oracle of salvation “focuses on a change of fortune, situation, or relationship to God.[30]

2. Future for Israel (2:28–32). In the book of Joel we’ve seen the present reality of the locust plague (1:1—2:27), now we see future realities of the eschatological age (2:28—3:21). Joel 2:28–32 is quoted by Peter at Pentecost in Acts 2:16–21.[31] (However, Peter’s quotation contains a few variations from the Hebrew text and Greek text.) These five verses tell us about the Lord’s renewal of his people. Specifically, a promise of spiritual renewal (vv. 28–29), and a promise of deliverance from their enemies (vv. 30–32).

We might, perhaps, see another chiasm here in Joel with the focus of the chiasm being Joel 2:28–32:

A – Northern Army Destroyed (Joel 2:20)

            B – Rain Poured Out to Heal the Land (Joel 2:21–27)

            B’ – Spirit Poured Out to Heal the People (Joel 2:28–32)

A’ – Judgment on Gentile Armies (Joel 3:1–21)[32]

B. Implementation (3:1–21). We could summarize the three chapters of Joel this way: universal lamentation (ch. 1), uncompromising repentance (ch. 2), and unconditional love (ch. 3). In Joel 3:1–21 God reveals his plan for national restoration of Israel. In this national restoration, the people of Israel are regathered to Jerusalem and Israel (see Isa 11:15; Matt 24:31). I once heard the metaphor of a photographer used to describe what Joel does in Joel 2:30–32 and Joel 3:1–21. Joel uses the wide angle for the “big picture” scene in Joel 2:30–32. Then, Joel zooms in for a close look at the Day of the Lord in the future in Joel 3. We could summarize these final two sections as a judgement of the nations (vv. 1–16) and restoration for Israel (vv. 17–21). In Joel 3 we see that the nations are judged (Joel 3:1–16) and God’s people are blessed (Joel 3:17–21).

1. Penalty for the Nations (3:1–16). In this section judgment is announced (vv. 1–8) and described (vv. 9–16).[33] I like Warren Wiersbe’s organization of this section: “Nations, prepare for judgment” (vv. 1–8), “Nations, prepare for war!” (vv. 9–15), and “Nations, prepare for defeat” (v. 16).[34]

2. Peace for Israel (3:17–21). While the focus of Joel 3:1–16 was judgment of the nations, the focus now shifts in Joel 3:17–21 to a just restoration of Israel. In Joel 3:17–21 Joel looks beyond the battle. Again, I like Warren Wierbse’s summary of these five verses: A Holy City (v. 17), a restored land (vv. 18–19), a cleansed people (vv. 20–21a), and a glorious king (v. 21b).[35]

APPLICATION. The imperative mood is used forty-five times in the book of Joel, suggesting an urgency in his message. However, arriving at applications for Joel is difficult because no specific sins are mentioned (with one exception possibly being “drunkenness” in Joel 1:4). I agree with Douglas Stuart who writes, “Joel does not identify any covenant violations on the part of his nation. Nowhere does he specify exactly what Judah and Jerusalem have done to deserve the distress they now face.”[36] With that said, we need to keep our applications “general” because the text describes sin in general. Joel applies to any group of people because all people are sinful, and we don’t know what the specific sins were in the book of Joel. Here are some good applications from the book of Joel.

1. Develop a distaste for sin.
2. Discover our sin and find ways to stop it.
3. Deploy a plan to prevent that sin from happening in the future.
4. Determine to be sensitive to judgment God sends into our lives and repent of our sins.
5. Discern how God is getting your attention.

“From Ruin to Renewal: Sermons from Joel”

1. When Calamity Comes (Joel 1:1–7)
2. When We Let God Down (Joel 1:8–20)
3. An Alarm No One Can Ignore (Joel 2:1–11)
4. When Sorry Isn’t Enough (Joel 2:12–17)
5. Time to Call God (Joel 2:18–27)
6. The View from Zion (Joel 2:28–32)
7. Verdict in the Valley (Joel 3:1–16)
8. Mind on the Millennium (Joel 3:17–21)

– – – – – – – – – – – –

Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

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[1] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[2] Ken Hanna, From Moses to Malachi (Nashville, TN: WestBow Press, 2015), 434.

[3] An interesting fact that both Joel and Obadiah have names which twelve other men have in the Bible. Yet both Joel and Obadiah do not appear to be connected with those twelve men.

[4] Tremper Longman III and Raymond Dillard, An Introduction to the Old Testament, 2^nd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 2006), 409.

[5] Zion is the same location as “Jerusalem.” However, Zion is often the word used in poetic sections of Scripture.

[6] Duane Garret, Hosea, Joel, New American Commentary vol. 19a (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1997), 286.

[7] Dillard and Longman, Old Testament Introduction, 411–12.

[8] Dillard and Longman, Old Testament Introduction, 412.

[9] This appears to be the case on several occasions. For example, Joel 3:5 is very similar to Obadiah 17. Joel 2:27 is also very similar to Isaiah 44:8; 45:14. Joel 3:10 is the reversed language of both Isaiah 2:4 and Micah 4:3. Most likely, these prophets were using common phrases popular among Israel’s prophets.

[10] An explanation for why Joel is placed between Hosea and Amos might be because of content, not date. Longman and Dillard point out, “The position of Joel in the Hebrew Canon between the eighth-century prophecies of Hosea and Amos has been taken by many as indicative of date; however, in the LXX Joel was found after Micah. Its position between Hosea and Amos is probably the result of the similarities between Amos 1:2; 9:19 and Joel 3:16, 18 [MT 4:16, 18] and the fact that both Amos and Joel mention Tyre, the Philistines, and Edom” (Dillard and Longman, Old Testament Introduction, 413). For example, Michael Shepherd sees Joel 1:2–3 providing a “compositional seam” with Hosea 14:10. Thus, the two works are placed together based on content not date. See A Commentary on the Book of the Twelve (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2018), 116.

^[11] Robert B. Chisholm Jr., “Joel,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 1 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 1423.

[12] Longman and Dillard, Old Testament Introduction, 413.

[13] Douglas Stuart, Hosea–Jonah, Word Biblical Commentary 31 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Academic, 1988), 226.

^[14] Robert B. Chisholm Jr., “Joel,” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: An Exposition of the Scriptures, ed. J. F. Walvoord and R. B. Zuck, vol. 1 (Wheaton, IL: Victor Books, 1985), 1410.

[15] Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago, IL: Moody, 2007),395.

[16] Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 229.

[17] Garret, Hosea, Joel, 305.

[18] Garret, Hosea, Joel, 306.

[19] “the actual topic of the Book of Joel is not locusts, soldiers, the Holy Spirit, or the last judgment. It is the day of the Lord. This is the real focus of Joel and the theme to which the book repeatedly returns. Everything that happens in Joel is a fulfillment of the day of the Lord, a term that includes both judgment and salvation.” (Garrett, Hosea, Joel, 389.

^[20] Charles Caldwell Ryrie, Ryrie Study Bible: New American Standard Bible, 1995 Update, Expanded ed. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1995), 1392.

[21] Bullock, Old Testament Prophetic Books, 391.

[22] Stuart, Hosea–Jonah, 235.

[23] Garret, Hosea, Joel, 308.

[24] Michael Shepherd, A Commentary on the Book of the Twelve (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Academic, 2018), 147.

^[25] Richard D. Patterson, “Joel,” in The Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Daniel–Malachi (Revised Edition), ed. Tremper Longman III and David E. Garland, vol. 8 (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2008), 314.

[26] Adapted from Hanna, From Gospels to Glory, 433.

^[27] D. A. Garrett, “Joel, Book of,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, ed. Mark J. Boda and Gordon J. McConville (Downers Grove, IL; Nottingham, England: IVP Academic; Inter-Varsity Press, 2012), 452.

[28] Chisholm, “Joel,” in Bible Knowledge Commentary, 1418.

[29] Garrett, Hosea, Joel, 344.

[30] Leland Ryken, Symbols and Reality (Wooster, OH: Weaver Book Company, 2016), 38. Also see pp. 38–42.

[31] Joel 2:28–32 is quoted to some extent in nine places in the New Testament (Matt 24:29; Mark 13:24–25; Luke 21:25; Acts 2:17–21, 39; 21:29; 22:16; Rom 10:13; Tit 3:6; Rev 6:12).

[32] Garrett, “Joel, Book of,” in Dictionary of Old Testament: Prophets, 452.

[33] Chisholm, “Joel,” in Bible Knowledge Commentary, 1421–22.

[34] Warren Wiersbe, Be Amazed (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 2010), 78–79.

[35] Wiersbe, Be Amazed, 80–83.

[36] Stuart, Hosea-Jonah, 231.

“Questioning”

While most Old Testament prophets declared God’s message to the people, in the book of Habakkuk the people—through Habakkuk—declare their message to God. While most Old Testament prophets preached about divine judgment, Habakkuk pleaded for divine judgment. While most Old Testament prophets shared God’s concerns with Israel or Judah, Habakkuk shared Judah’s concerns with God. In this way the book of Habakkuk contains some of the most foundational questions in life. The book of Habakkuk represents the godly voice of those in Judah that had questions of God. The book of Habakkuk is not an oracle to Judah, but instead is a dialogue between the prophet and God.

BIG IDEA. A mature faith trusts and submits to the Lord’s plans even when you can’t see or understand the Lord’s plans.

KEY VERSE. “Your eyes are too pure to approve evil, and You can not look on wickedness with favor. Why do You look with favor on those who deal treacherously? Why are You silent when the wicked swallow up those more righteous than they?” (Hab 1:13, NASB)[1]

AUTHOR. The name Habakkuk only shows up two times in the entire Bible (Hab 1:1; 3:1).[2] We know nothing about Habakkuk’s family or his heritage. We don’t get his father’s name, his hometown, nor are we told about the kings in power when he spoke. (Those details are often part of what’s called a superscription that is common in the Old Testament prophetic books.)

            Habakkuk likely was an ordained priest. He appears well educated, deeply sensitive to Scripture, and his literary style suggests Habakkuk was as much of a poet as a prophet.[3] Musical notes in Habakkuk 3:19 suggests he was part of the temple’s liturgical singing. His aptitude for music is clear.

            In the apocryphal section of Daniel (vv. 33-39) called “Bel and the Dragon,” Jewish tradition says Habakkuk was delivering food to workers in the field when an angel took him back to Babylon and Habakkuk offered food to Daniel in the lions den.[4] That story is probably more legendary than historical.

            Habakkuk likely lived in Judah in 607–604 BC under king Jehoiakim (Jer 22:15–17; 2 Kings 23:34—24:5) in the final dark days of the southern nation of Judah.

DATE. The heading of the book of Habakkuk—unlike other prophets—provides no chronological or historical information that would reveal to us the date of the book.

Pre-exilic Date. I take the date of 607 BC. At that time sin was ruling in the land of Judah, rulers were not administering justice to those who needed it, corruption and lawlessness were descriptive of their era, and it was bad.

            But how bad was it? Habakkuk lived under King Jehoiakim of Judah. Jehoiakim ruled in Judah 609-605 BC under Egypt’s oversight and 605-601 BC under Babylon’s oversight. During his rule Jehoiakim killed innocent people who opposed him, refused to pay poor laborers (2 Kings 23:35-37; Jer 22:13-19), he killed Uriah the prophet for prophesying that Jerusalem would fall (Jer 26:20-23), and he burned the prophet Jeremiah’s hand-written prophecy (Jer 36). Furthermore, prophets and priests were known to commit adultery and abuse their authority under his rulership (Jer 23:1-2, 9-11).[5]

            Here’s a brief timeline. In 607 BC Habakkuk writes. In 605 BC Babylon comes to Judah and Daniel is taken into exile in Babylon. In 597 BC Babylon comes again and Ezekiel is taken into exile in Babylon. In 586 BC Babylon finishes what they started by completely destroying the city of Jerusalem.

Post-exilic Date. C. Hassell Bullock writes, “One of the most radical proposals was put forth by Bernard Duhm, who amended the term Kasdim (Chaldeans) to Kittim (Greeks) and dated the book about 322 BC.”[6] Bullock continues, “C. C. Torrey followed that line of reasoning and advocated that the book was a meditation on the conquests of Alexander the Great. He dated it between 334 and 331.”[7]

THEMES. Two themes appear to be prominent in this book.

The Lord. Both of Habakkuk’s questions begin with, “O Lord” (Hab 1:2, 12), the “Lord” answers (Hab 2:2, 13, 14, 16, 20), then Habakkuk praises the “Lord” (Hab 3:2 [two times], 8, 18, 19). The name of God, “Lord,”is mentioned eleven times in the book of Habakkuk. The NASB translation uses “Lord” in small caps and is translation of YHWH[8] (transliterated as Yahweh).[9] Some people believe it comes from the verb, “to be” in Hebrew. YHWHis called the “Tetragrammaton” (which means four letters) and was the covenant name of God from Exodus 3:14 where God reveals to Moses, “I AM WHO I AM.” This indicated God’s covenant faithfulness and should evoke confidence.[10]

The Chaldeans. The answer to Habakkuk’s questions is that God will use the Babylonians to execute God’s plan (Hab 1:5–11, 15–17). In Habakkuk 1:6a we read, “For behold, I am raising up the Chaldeans” (Hab 1:6a). The Hebrew word, kasdim, is translated as “Chaldeans” in the NASB but this group of people is better known by another name: Babylonians. The Babylonians were a tribe within the Assyrian Empire that rose up and overtook the Assyrian Empire. Nabopolassar rose to power in 625 BC and Nebuchadnezzar inherited the powerful kingdom in 605 BC.[11] This was surprising for two reasons. One, that a small group within the nation of Assyria could rise up and overtake Assyria. Two, that God would allow a foreign nation which was wicked and evil to punish the nation of Judah. The prophets Isaiah (39:5–7) and Micah (4:10) could see the transition from Assyrian to Babylonian dominance. Many people could see the Babylonian rise to power and significance in the ancient Near East.

LITERARY DESIGN AND GENRE.

Oracle. Habakkuk 1:1 reveals this is an “oracle.” The word, “oracle” (מַשָּׂא)[12] literally means “burden” and is “a pronouncement or message from God to people.”[13] In the Old Testament there are three types of oracles:Judgement, blessing, and salvation.[14] The book of Habakkuk is an oracle of judgement against the evil of the nation of Judah, its kings, its people, and its rulers.

Woe. In Habakkuk 2 we see the Hebrew word, hoy used as “woe” in Habakkuk 2:6, 9, 12, 15, 19. These are woe oracles which announce the failure and future doom of a nation. Amos 6:1–7 is a good example of a woe oracle against Israel. Technically, Habakkuk 2:6–19 is an oracle of judgement, but it goes a little farther. We would classify this as “taunt.” A taunt “is an utterance that mocks or jeers the opponent.”[15] It’s a put down. It’s trash talk. There’s an element of not just “what bad will happen” but also a personal attack on the nation and its leaders. God “rubs it in” in a certain way to make it hurt, to make it sting, and to make it personal.[16]

Theodicy. The book of Habakkuk is often called a “theodicy.” A theodicy is an “attempt to defend God’s omnipotence and goodness in the face of the problem of evil in the world.”[17] The book of Habakkuk tells the story of a man, Habakkuk, asking God about the evil he sees occurring in his country and in the neighboring nations. It also reveals the struggles that Habakkuk has with what he sees and what he believes God should be doing.

Unique. The book of Habakkuk is unique among the prophets in the Old Testament. Most Old Testament prophets brought God’s messages to the people, Habakkuk brings the people’s questions to God. While most prophets in the Old Testament preached about divine judgment, Habakkuk pleaded for divine judgment. While most prophets of the Old Testament shared God’s concerns with Judah, Habakkuk shares Judah’s concerns with God. Thomas Constable writes, “Habakkuk is unusual among the prophetical books in that it tells a story. In this it is similar to Jonah, which is also the record of a prophet’s experience. Jonah gives the account of a prophet’s failure to sympathize with God. Habakkuk gives the account of a prophet’s failure to understand God. Jonah deals with a problem posed by Nineva, and Habakkuk deals with a problem posed by Babylon. Habakkuk, like Jonah, also records one major event in the life of the prophet. Most of the other prophetic books record the messages and activities of a prophet over an extended period of years. Habakkuk does contain prophecies, so it does like the other prophetic books in this respect.”[18]

UNITY OF THE BOOK. Some liberal scholars over the years have challenged the unity of the book of Habakkuk. Specifically, they’ve viewed chapter three as a post-exilic addition because of the different literary features and because a commentary on Habakkuk found in the Dead Sea Schools does not contain Habakkuk 3 (1QpHab is the scroll).[19] However, the early textual witnesses from many different languages and text-types all have Habakkuk 3 in them. It seems odd to me that the Qumran commentary on Habakkuk does not have a commentary on Habakkuk 3. “Some argue that Habakkuk 3 was added much later, as it is missing from DSS commentary (1QpHab). The majority think that it is part of the original mt tradition (Andersen, 259–60), confirmed in the second-century Minor Prophet scroll found at Wadi Murabbaʿat and present in the early lxx versions and in the Naḥal Ḥeber first-century Greek manuscript. The more archaic language of the chapter is in keeping with the liturgy of theophanic visions (Sweeney, 1:479; Roberts, 148–58). It is also a fitting response after the prophet’s questions and God’s revelation in the first two chapters (Hiebert 1986, 129–49).”[20]

OUTLINE

I. HABAKKUK’S PROBLEMS (Hab 1:1—2:1).

A. Introduction (Hab 1:1). We could label this verse as Habakkuk’s call.

B. Habakkuk’s First Question (Hab 1:2–4). In these verses we read about God’s perceived inactivity. Habakkuk essentially asks God, “How long will evil continue and when will you stop it?” Habakkuk shares his cry (vv. 2–3) and his concern (v. 4).

C. God’s First Answer (Hab 1:5–11). God essentially responds: “I’m going to stop it, I know what’s going on, and you’ll be surprised how.” God tells Habakkuk that he will use the ungodly people of Babylon to purify his people (Judah) who are acting ungodly. In this section we see God’s intention of discipline (v. 5), God’s instrument of discipline (vv. 6–10), and God’s implementation of discipline (v. 11).

1. Pay Attention to This (v. 5)

2. The Description of the Chaldeans (vv. 6–7)

3. The Destruction of the Chaldeans (vv. 8–11)

D. Habakkuk’s Second Question (Hab 1:12—2:1). In these verses we read about God’s perceivedinconsistency. Habakkuk essentially asks God: “Why use greater sinners against less sinners?” Habakkuk asks why God would use the more serious sinners (Babylonians) to punish the less serious sinners (Judah). In this section we read a declaration about God (1:12–13), a description of the Babylonians (1:14–17), and a determination to wait (2:1).

1. Holiness of God (vv. 12–13)

2. Haughtiness of the Chaldeans (vv. 14–17)

3. Habakkuk Waiting (Hab 2:1)

II. HABAKKUK’S PATIENCE (Hab 2:2–20). This is God’s second answer. In these verses God essentially says: “I have a plan for the future, a message for the faithful, and punishment planned for the Babylonians.” In this section we read about God’s plans for the future (vv. 2–3), God’s plans for the righteous (vv. 4–5), and God’s plans for the wicked (vv. 6–20).

A. God’s Answer (vv. 2–3)

B. Righteous Living by Faith (vv. 4–5). The Talmud (Makkot 23b) records a Rabbi that said, “Moses gave Israel 613 commandments, David reduced them to 10, Isaiah to 2, but Habakkuk to one: the righteous shall live by faith.”

C. Enemies of Babylon and Response to Those Enemies (vv. 6–11)

D. Anger Building Against the Babylonians (vv. 12–14)

E. Punishment Against the Babylonians (vv. 15–17)

F. True God in Heaven Will Contrast Fake Gods in Babylon (vv. 18–20)

III. HABAKKUK’S PRAISE (Hab 3). “Habakkuk does not end with a wail, but with a song. It does not end with inquiry, but with affirmation. It does not end with frustration, but with faith.”[21] Habakkuk 3 records Habakkuk praying (vv. 1–2), pondering (vv. 3–15), and praising (vv. 16–19). When writing about Habakkuk 3 Warren Wiersbe says, “His circumstances hadn’t changed, but he had changed, and now he was walking by faith instead of sight. He was living by promises, not explanations.”[22]

A. The Message of God (vv. 1-2). After God’s second answer to Habakkuk we read what Habakkuk says in reply to God. In this section we see Habakkuk’s reply (v. 1), response (v. 2a), and request (v. 2b).

1. A Prayer (v. 1)

2. A Praise (v. 2)

B. The Majesty of God (vv. 3-15). Habakkuk 3:3–15 is a theophany.[23] A theophany is a manifestation of God on earth and “an appearance of God in great power and glory.”[24] In this section there is an awesome appearance of God (vv. 3–7), and there are amazing acts of God (vv. 18–19).

1. Where He Comes From (v. 3)

2. What He Looks Like (v. 4)

3. What He Does (vv. 5–15)

To the Nations (vv. 5–7)

To His Creation (vv. 8–12)

To His Enemies (vv. 13–15)

4. How God Affects Us (v. 16)

C. The Meaning of God (vv. 17-19). Notice the strong contrast to how this book started. We started with Habakkuk asking, “God, why don’t you do something?” (Hab 1:1–4) and “God, why would you do that?” (Hab 1:12—2:1). Now Habakkuk essentially says, “God, when you do what you said you will do, I exult you, rejoice in you, and look to you for strength.” In this section we see Habakkuk’s position (v. 16), problem (v. 17), and praise (vv. 18–19)

1. The Circumstance (v. 17)

2. The Calling to Praise (v. 18).

3. The Capacity of God for Strength (v. 19)

APPLICATION. Many of us probably have the same questions that Habakkuk asked. Questions such as, “God do you know what’s going on? God when will you intervene? God why don’t you do something? God if you are good why do you allow evil, pain, and suffering?”

            In the book of Habakkuk we don’t get all of those answers at once. Just as each of the four gospels give us a portrait of Jesus from a different side and with a different emphasis, the book of Habakkuk answers our questions in a series of steps building upon each other. Each step gets us closer to understanding who God is and why he chooses to do what he does in the way he does it.

            The Old Testament book of Habakkuk was written 2600 years ago (in 607 BC), yet it deals with a modern problem and common questions we all experience. The book of Habakkuk answers our questions because Habakkuk was asking the same questions then that we ask now. Thankfully, we don’t just read about Habakkuk’s questions, we read about God’s answers. In this process we are seeing Habakkuk go from a wonderer, to a watcher, and now to a worshipper. Habakkuk started in gloom, now he ends in glory. Habakkuk went from why to worship. Habakkuk’s faith has been tested (chapter 1), taught (chapter 2), and is triumphant (chapter 3).

            In her book, Trembling Faith, Taylor Turkington writes, “Habakkuk does something different–he invites us into his conversation with God, like we’re sitting in on his prayer meeting. We have a front-row seat to Habakkuk’s wrestling, listening, bravery, and gritty faith.”[25]

SERMONS FROM HABAKKUK: “REVERENT WRESTLINGS”

1. Wondering and Waiting (Hab 1:1–4)
2. God’s Got This (Hab 1:5–11)
3. God, Do You Have This? (Hab 1:12—2:1)
4. Living by Faith (Hab 2:2–20)
5. The Prayer of a Prophet (Hab 3:1–2)
6. Standing Ovation (Hab 3:3–15)
7. Direction in the Midst of Disaster (Hab 3:16–19)

ARTICLES FROM HABAKKUK

1. Meet Habakkuk
2. What do we know about Habakkuk? (Hab 1:1)
3. Habakkuk’s Cry (Hab 1:2-3)
4. What We Do When We See Suffering (Hab 1:4)
5. Our Limited View of God (Hab 1:1-4)
6. Our Reminder That God Is God (Hab 1:5-11)
7. He Who Is Sovereign (Hab 1:5)
8. How America Is Different Than Israel (Hab 1:6-10)
9. Grace Time (Hab 1:11)
10. Gospel News (Hab 1:5-11)
11. God Questions (Hab 1:12-2:1)
12. Confidence in God (Hab 1:12-13)
13. Nothing Without God (Hab 1:14-17)
14. Waiting for God (Hab 2:1)
15. Waiting on God (Hab 1:12-2:1)
16. Living by Faith (Hab 2:2-20)
17. While We Wait for God (Hab 2:2-3)
18. God’s Plans for the Righteous (Hab 2:4-5)
19. God’s Plans for the Wicked (Hab 2:6-20)
20. Just Live by Faith (Hab 2:2-20)
21. How Revelation Leads to Trust (Hab 3:1-2)
22. God Knows Your Name (Hab 3:1)
23. A Healthy Fear of God (Hab 3:2a)
24. Peace in God’s Plans (Hab 3:2b)
25. When Faith Matures (Hab 3:1-2)
26. An Answer to Prayer (Hab 3:3-15)
27. An Awesome Appearance of God (Hab 3:3-7)
28. The Amazing Acts of God (Hab 3:8-15)
29. What a Big God (Hab 3:3-15)
30. Direction in the Midst of Disaster (Hab 3:16-19)
31. Embracing the Wait (Hab 3:16)
32. Consequences of Disobedience (Hab 3:17)
33. Rejoicing While God Works (Hab 3:18)
34. Raising Above Life’s Troubles (Hab 3:19)
35. Looking Up When We Are Down (Hab 3:16-19)

Christopher L. Scott is a pastor and author of the book, Walking Straight When Life Goes Sideways: Essential Christian Truths for Enduring Life’s Trials (Wipf and Stock). He provides hundreds of free articles, videos, and Bible study resources at his website ChristopherLynnScott.com.

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[1] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.

[2] Habakkuk 2:4 is quoted in Romans 1:17, Galatians 3:11, and Heb 10:38.

[3] J. Ron Blue, “Habakkuk” in The Bible Knowledge Commentary: Old Testament, edited by John Walvoord and Roy Zuck (Colorado Springs, CO: David C. Cook, 1985), 1508.

[4] C. Hassell Bullock, An Introduction to the Old Testament Prophetic Books (Chicago, IL: Moody, 2007),221.

[5]This material on the kings during Habakkuk is adapted from J.K. Bruckner, “Habakkuk, Book of” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, edited by Mark Boda and J. Gordon McConville (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2012), 294-301, specifically p. 296.

[6] Bullock, Introduction to the Old Testament: Prophets, 219.

[7] Bullock, Introduction to the Old Testament: Prophets, 219.

[8] YHWH occurs 6,823 times in Old Testament. See Francis Brown, Samuel Rolles Driver, and Charles Augustus Briggs. Enhanced Brown-Driver-Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), 217–19.

[9] Other names for God based on Hebrew are “God” from Elohim (which is the more universal name for God) and “Lord” from Adonai (which was a divine title for God). The word “Jehovah” in some Bibles consists of the Hebrew consonants from Yahweh combined with the Hebrew vowels from Adonai.

[10] One commentary on Habakkuk 2:2 tells us, “The choice of ‘LORD’ here rather than the more general term for God probably emphasizes the fact that Habakkuk addressed his words to Israel’s covenant God” (Richard D. Patterson, Habakkuk, Cornerstone Biblical Commentary vol. 10[Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House, 2008],427).

[11] B. T. Arnold, “Babylon” (pp. 53-60) edited by Mark J. Boda and Gordon J. McConville, Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets (Downers Grove, IL; Inter-Varsity Press, 2012), 59.

[12] The NLT translates it as “message” and the NIV as “prophecy.”

[13] Leland Ryken, Symbols and Reality (Wooster, OH: Weaver Book Company, 2016), 31.

[14] Ryken, Symbols and Reality, 32-43.

[15] Ryken, Symbols and Reality, 50.

[16] Ryken, Symbols and Reality, 49-52.

[17] Page Brooks and D. A. Neal, “Theodicy,” ed. John D. Barry et al., The Lexham Bible Dictionary (Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press, 2016).

[18] Thomas Constable, Notes on Habakkuk, 2013 edition, p. 8.

[19] See O. Palmer Robertson, The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah, New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990), 212–14; Richard D. Patterson, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Wycliffe Exegetical Commentary (Chicago, IL: Moody, 1991), 127–29, for further discussion of the book’s unity.

[20] Bruckner, “Habakkuk, Book of,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Prophets, 295.

[21] Constable, Notes on Habakkuk, 11.

[22] Warren Wiersbe, Be Amazed (Colorado Springs, CO: David C Cook, 2010), 157.

[23] The clearest theophany in Scripture, besides Habakkuk 3:3–15, is Exodus 19:9, 18.

[24] Waylon Bailey, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, vol. 20, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 1999), 358.

[25] Taylor Turkington, Trembling Faith: How a Distressed Prophet Helps Us Trust God in a Chaotic World (Brentwood, TN: B&H, 2023), 15–16.