THE CONTEXT OF 1 PETER AND SUFFERING IN THE FIRST-CENTURY AND EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH
It’s been said that every text has a context. As the text of 1 Peter directly teaches Christians why they are suffering and how to endure suffering, we must ask what was the suffering that Peter’s readers were enduring? This paper is my attempt, as a local pastor preaching 1 Peter to a local church, to understand the context of the text of 1 Peter.
THE REGION OF PETER’S READERS AND THE LETTER’S DESTINATION
The apostle Peter addresses his letter to those “who reside as aliens, scattered throughout Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia” (1 Pet 1:1b).[1] Most Christians probably only recognize “Galatia” and “Asia” among these five locations. Peter’s reference likely refers to a group of believers that are scattered among a large geographical area. These five regions cover approximately 300,000 square miles.[2] This is likely the entire region of modern-day Turkey. However, it is not clear if Peter is talking about Roman provinces or if he’s referring to general geographical regions. An American comparison would be if someone discusses the state of Colorado or the Rocky Mountains.
The Traveler’s Itinerary
The order of the regions Peter lists likely reflects someone arriving by sea in the port of Pontus, visiting the churches in the districts named in that order, then returning to Bithynia.[3] “The most likely scenario is that the bearer of the letter traveled roughly in a circle, delivering it to churches in each region successively.”[4]
The People of the Region
This region was economically prosperous. Thus a wide range of wealthy land owners and merchants were present alongside the poorer working class.[5] The churches of this area were likely made up of working class citizens or slaves since Peter gives each group a specific exhortation in this letter (see 1 Pet 2:11–17, 18–25). However, there is no exhortation to masters or slave owners.
THE PROBLEM OF SUFFERING
In their chapter on 1 Peter, scholars Douglas Moo and D. A. Carson say the issue of suffering “lies beneath virtually every verse of this letter.”[6] Peter’s references to trials and suffering in this letter seem to be stronger than the typical struggles of ordinary life (illness, poverty, death, etc.).[7] It appears to be persecution specifically targeted to Christians.
THE PAGAN ATTITUDE TOWARD CHRISTIANS[8]
The upper-class of Romans called Christianity a “superstition” (Acts 25:19). Christians were viewed in a circumspect and confusing manner because of their withdrawal from the activities of pagan society.[9] Various historians, philosophers, and even comedians have written about how Christians were viewed in and following the first-century. Let’s evaluate a few of these within their historical and literary context.
Characterization of Christians by Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus (AD 56–120) was a Roman historian, senator, and aristocrat. Tacitus is famous for calling Christians “hideous and shameful” as well as “a deadly superstition.”[10] Tacitus’ work, Annals, chronicles Roman history from AD 14 to 68. He likely wrote Annals from AD 115–117.[11]
Tacitus makes it clear that Romans viewed Christians with hostility. Later in the same work, Annals 15.44.4, he accuses Christians of having a “hatred against the human race.”
This accusation likely is based on two practices of Christians. (We might label them as “omissions” or “withdrawals” of Christians.) First, Christians were hesitant to engage in communal acts of reverence for the emperor.[12] Second, Christians were monotheistic which meant they did not practice in or actively participate in the communal events intended to appease many of the gods and goddess of the polytheistic first-century culture. These two “withdrawals” or “omission” from the community caused confusion, suspicion that eventually led to hostility, and affliction toward Christians.
Confusion of Christians as Described by Minucius Felix
The language first-century Christians used was confusing and often misunderstood. Minucius Felix (died AD 250) was a Roman lawyer and early Christian apologist. His work, Octavius, is a dialogue between a skeptic pagan named Caecilius Natalis and the Christian Octavius Januarius. Minucius was the one, apparently, arbitrating between the two men.[13] Minucius was a friend of Octavius and apparently wrote the work we now know as Octavius for educated non-Christians. In that work, Octavius, Minucius explains some of the common things that pagans misunderstood about Christians.
Pagans had heard Christians talk of “eating the body” and “drinking the blood” of Christ (Oct. 9). No one can blame outsiders from potential confusion, even if it was meant as satire, that Christians were cannibals. Outside pagans also, as a byproduct of a heavily sexualized culture, made wrong conclusions about “brothers and sisters” becoming “united as one” in marriage. Pagans who did not understand Christian language wrongly assumed Christians of incest because they married brothers and sisters in the Christian faith (Oct. 9).[14]
Minucius also makes it clear that Christians had suffered greatly because of gossip about these things. Minucius recounts how many people had claimed that “Christians worshipped monsters, devoured infants, mingled in incestuous banquets.”[15] Minucius again recounts, “fables as these were always set afloat by those (newsmongers), and were never either inquired into nor proved”[16] (Oct. 18).
Criticism of Christians as Described by Lucian of Samosata
By the second century Christians were considered the objects of humor. Lucian of Samosata (AD 125–180) was a comedian famous for making fun of the practices, beliefs, and culture of Christians. In his work, On the Death of Peregrinus, Lucian makes fun of Christians for being gullible and accepting. In Lucian’s work, On the Death of Peregrinus, Peregrinus is an imposter of Christianity because he knows the people will support him when he gets in trouble. Lucian retells Peregrinus’ activities that Peregrinus intentionally does because he knows Christians will come to his aid. Peregrinus was not a Christian, but did this as a way to enrich himself. The work, while sometimes questioned for historical accuracy, is intended to mock Christians as gullible and stupid.
SPECIFIC INFORMATION REGARDING PETER’S FIRST LETTER
Peter was likely in Jerusalem for the “Jerusalem Council” of AD 49, but he did not remain in Palestine. He likely traveled to Corinth (stopping in Antioch and Asia Minor) in the early 50s.[17] After this, he likely traveled to Rome and was killed during the massacres of Christians under Emperor Nero after the Great Fire in Rome in 64.
Peter travelled a northerly route between Corinth (1 Cor 9:5) and Antioch which is how he became acquainted with Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. Peter probably trained and encouraged believers to go and share the gospel in other areas (as seen in 1 Pet 1:12, 23–25).[18]
Clement, the Bishop of Rome, wrote in the mid 90s that Peter had come to Rome and settled there until his death.[19] Clement describes this in 1 Clement 5:4–5, “Through envy and jealousy, the greatest and most righteous pillars [of the Church] have been persecuted and put to death. Let us set before our eyes the illustrious apostles. Peter, through unrighteous envy, endured not one or two, but numerous labours; and when he had at length suffered martyrdom, departed to the place of glory due to him. Owing to envy, Paul also obtained the reward of patient endurance, after being seven times thrown into captivity, compelled to flee, and stoned. After preaching both in the east and west, he gained the illustrious reputation due to his faith, having taught righteousness to the whole world, and come to the extreme limit of the west, and suffered martyrdom under the prefects. Thus was he removed from the world, and went into the holy place, having proved himself a striking example of patience.”[20]
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS ON THE SUFFERING REFERENCED IN PETER’S FIRST LETTER
I believe the correct context about the text of 1 Peter is this: Peter’s readers were experiencing an unofficial hostility from the general Roman population. Peter’s readers had refused to engage in religious customs associated with Roman government, they abstained from immoral practices that everyone else enjoyed, they gathered regularly to fellowship around the Lord’s Supper which included eating Christ’s “body” and drinking his “blood,” and only married fellow “brothers and sisters” of their faith. Because of this, they were met with suspicion, ridicule, and hostility.[21] I agree with Douglas Moo and D. A. Carson who state, “The readers of 1 Peter were probably being criticized, mocked, discriminated against, and perhaps even brought into court on trumped-up charges.”[22]
Based on this quotation and other references I’ve shared throughout this article, most scholars believe Peter spent the last decade of his life doing ministry to Jews in Rome.[23] Interestingly, when Paul arrives in Rome (probably in the early sixties) the unbelieving Jews in Rome were already aware of Christian teaching (Acts 28:22). Thus, some who believe Paul’s statement, “And thus I aspired to preach the gospel, not where Christ was already named, so that I would not build on another man’s foundation” (Rom 15:20), is a reference to Peter’s ministry in Rome, which is where he was when he wrote 1 Peter.[24]
[1] Scripture taken from the New American Standard Bible, Copyright The Lockman Foundation 1960, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, 1995. Used by permission.
[2] Thomas R. Schreiner, 1, 2 Peter, Jude, vol. 37, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003), 52.
[3] Donald Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, revised edition (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990), 784.
[4] Thomas R. Schreiner, 1, 2 Peter, Jude, vol. 37, The New American Commentary (Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers, 2003), 52.
[5] Guthrie, New Testament Introduction, 784.
[6] D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, An Introduction to the New Testament, 2nd edition (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2005), 638.
[7] Carson and Moo, Introduction to the New Testament, 639.
[8] Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd edition (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2003), 592–620.
[9] Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 593.
[10] Tacitus, Annals, 15.44.2–8.
[11] Darrell L Bock, Studying the Historical Jesus: A Guide to Sources and Methods (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2002), 49.
[12] Bock, Studying the Historical Jesus, 50.
[13] Robert Earnest Wallis, “Introductory Note to Minucius Felix, Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, eds., “Introductory Note to Minucius Felix,” in Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second, vol. 4, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 170.
[14] Minucius Felix, “The Octavius of Minucius Felix,” in Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, trans. Robert Ernest Wallis, vol. 4, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 178.
[15] Minucius Felix, “The Octavius of Minucius Felix,” 190.
[16] Minucius Felix, “The Octavius of Minucius Felix,” 190.
[17] Paul Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1999), 301.
[18] Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity, 302.
[19] Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity, 302.
[20] Clement of Rome, “The First Epistle of Clement to the Corinthians,” in The Apostolic Fathers with Justin Martyr and Irenaeus, ed. Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe, vol. 1, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Company, 1885), 6.
[21] Moo and Carson, Introduction to the New Testament, 639.
[22] Moo and Carson, Introduction to the New Testament, 639.
[23] Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity, 303.
[24] Barnett, Jesus and the Rise of Early Christianity, 303.